GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 1
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER

“Gender can be understood in different perspectives.

Each situation depicts several
several views that we all can learn from.”
from.”
(MCF Siwagan)

Learning Objectives The terms sex and gender are

often used interchangeably in the
At the end of this chapter, students
are able to:
vernacular. However, in a scientific
1. Explain the concept of gender in sense, these words are not synonymous.
contrast to sex; Sex pertains to the physical aspect of the
human body. The sex of an individual is
2. Differentiate the three major determined by their respective
theoretical perspectives on view reproductive organs and hormones, the
of gender lens: functionalist, biological spectrum of the individual.
conflict, and symbolic On the other hand gender is
interactionist, and;
“psychological,” “social,” or “cultural.”
A person’s gender can be dif
different
ferent ffrom
rom
3. Evaluate the importance of
gender roles in the society. a person’s sex. Gender is thus “socially
constructed” in the sense that, unlike
biological sex, gender is a product of
society. If society determines what is masculine or feminine, then society can
change what is considered masculine, feminine, or anything in between. No
one needs to be locked into fixed gender categories. Any individual is free to
identify their gender as they see fit.

defined Gender
by one'scomes from the Latin
own identification as word
male, genus, meaning
female, kind or
or intersex; race. may
gender It is
also be based on legal status, social interactions, public persona, personal
experiences, and psychologic setting. On the other hand, sex, from the Latin
word sexus, is defined by the gonads, or potential gonads, either phenotypically
or genotypically. It is generally assigned at birth by external genital appearance,
due to the common assumption that this represents chromosomal or internal

1
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts anatomic status. A person's sex

is a primary state of anatomic or
Gender – refers to socially learned behavior physiologic parameters.
and expectations that distinguish between
masculinity and femininity. As the main focus of
this chapter, gender refers to
Functionalism Perspective
interconnectedness emphasizes
of society– by focusing the
on the socially constructed roles
how each part influences and is influenced by ascribed to individuals. These
other parts roles, which are learned, change
over time and vary widely
Conflict Perspective – argues that society is a within and between cultures.
struggle for dominance among social groups Unlike sex (the biological
(like women versus men) that compete for distinction between males and
scarce resources.
females), gender refers to
Symbolic Interactionist – aims to understand
socially learned behavior and
human behavior by analyzing the critical role of expectations that distinguish
symbols in human interaction. between masculinity and
femininity. The concept of
gender also includes the expectations held about the characteris
ch aracteristics,
tics, aptitudes,
aptitudes,
and likely behaviors of both men and women.

Men and women view the social world in various ways. An individuals’
views are based on ou
ourr ones’ experiences and perspectives in life. A perspective
pers pective
is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated
propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular
phenomenon; it provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us
to explain and predict the social world in which we live. Sociology includes
three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the conflict
perspective, and the symbolic interact
interactionist
ionist perspective (sometimes called the
interactionist perspective, or simply the micro view). Each perspective offers
a variety of explanations about the social world, human behavior, and gender.

Functionalist Perspective

Society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in

harmony to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole.
For example, each of the social institutions contributes important functions
for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and
socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills,
knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means of governing
members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and

2
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and
an outlet for worship of a higher power.
p ower.

The functionalist perspective emphasizes

the interconnectedness of society by
focusing on how each part influences and is
influenced by other parts. Functionalist
perspective explores the “what oath to be”
of a particular individual. The functionalist
perspective sees society as a complex system
whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability. This
approach looks at society through a macro-
level orientation and broadly focuses on the
social structures
structures that shape society as a whole.

Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe

the effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if
they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social
stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and dysfunctional.
For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical
violence, loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other
functionalists,
functional ists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened
heightene d
awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion.

Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and

latent (Merton 1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended
and commonly recognized. Latent functions are consequences that are
unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest function of education
is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public elementary
schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a
place for young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate-
selection functions are not the intended or commonly
c ommonly recognized functions of
education; hence they are latent functions.

Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the
pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of
the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic
responsibilities
responsibilities in or around the home. These roles were considered functional
because women were often limited by b y the physical restraints of pregnancy and
nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time. Once

established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they

3
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning

properly.

This theory suggests that gender inequalit

in equalities
ies exist as an efficient way
to create a division of labor, or as a social system in which a particula
p articularr segment
of the population is clearly responsible for certain acts of labor and another
segment is clearly responsible for other labor acts. The feminist movement
takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of women
within the family structure.

Conflict Perspective

The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic

works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. For Marx all societies go through
stages of economic development. As societies evolve from agricultural to
industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over
making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to

development
the means of two (e.g.,
of production classes of people:
factories, thebusinesses);
farms, bourgeoisie,and
or the
the proletariat,
owners of
or the workers who earn wages.

Society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women

versus men) that compete for scarce resources. When sociologists examine
gender from this perspective, we can view men as the dominant group and
women as the subordinate group. According to conflict theory, social
problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate
groups. Consider the Women’s Suffrage Movement or the debate over
women’s “right toto choose” thei
theirr reproductive futures. It is difficult for women
to rise above men, as dominant group members create the rules for success
and opportunity in society (Farrington and Chertok 1993).
Friedrich Engels, discusses that the same owner-worker relationship
seen in the labor force is also seen in the household, with women assuming
the role of the proletariat. This is due to women’s dependence on men for the
attainment of wages, which is even worse for women who are entirely
dependent upon their spouses for economic support. Contemporary conflict
theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power
po wer
in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home,
although they may still carry the majority of the domestic burden, as noted
earlier (Rismanand and Johnson-Sumerford 1998).

4
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

To discuss in context, Conflict theory assert

assertss that social problems
occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates
for a balance of power between genders. Frederich Engels compared the
family structure to the relationship
relationshi p between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat,
suggesting that women had less power than men in the household because
they were dependent on them for wages. Men, like any other group with a
power or wealth advantage in fought to maintain their control over resources
(in this case, political and economic power). Conflict between the two groups
caused things like the Women’s Suffrage Movement and was responsible for
social change.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectiv

Perspecti ve

Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by

analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction. This is certainly
relevant to the discussion of masculinity and femininity. Imagine that you walk
into a bank hoping to get a small loan for school, a home, or a small business

venture.
by listingIfallyou
themeet
hardwith a ma
male
numbers lethat
loan of
officer,
makeficer,
you you may state
state
a qualified your case
applicant as alogically
means
of appealing to the analytical characteristics associated with masculinity. If you
meet with a female loan officer,
o fficer, you may make an emotional appeal by stating
your good intentions as a means of appealing to the caring characteristics
associated with femininity.

Because the meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not
natural, and fluid, not fixed, we act and react to symbols based
b ased on the current
assigned meaning. The word gay, for example, once meant “cheerful,” but by
the 1960s it carried the primary meaning of “homosexual.” In transition, it was
even known to mean “careless” or “bright and showing” (Oxford American
Dictionary 2010). Furthermore,
carried a somewhat negative andthe word gay meaning
unfavorable (as it refers
fiftytoyears
a homosexual),
ago, but it
has since gained more neutral and even positive connotations. When people
perform tasks, or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to
them, they are said to be doing gender. This notion is based on the work of
West and Zimmerman (1987). Whether we are expressing our masculinity or
femininity, West and Zimmerman argue, we are always “doing ggender.” ender.” Thus,
gender is something we do or perform, not something we are.

Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self

is shaped by social interaction.
in teraction. We develop our self-concept by observing how
others interact with us a label us. By observing how others view us, we see a
reflection ourselves that Cooley calls the “looking glass self.”
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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Summary

1. Gender is the socially constructed roles ascribed to males and

females. These roles, which are learned, change over time and vary
widely within and between cultures. It is socially learned behavior
and expectations that distinguish between masculinity and
femininity. Unlike sex, which is the biological distinction between
males and females.

2. The three major theoretical perspectives are: the functionalist

perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic
interactionist perspective (sometimes called the interactionist
perspective, or simply the micro view).

3. Functionalist perspective highlights the interconnectedness of

society by focusing on how
h ow each part influences and is influenced
by other parts.

4. Conflict theory suggests that society is a struggle for dominance

among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for
scarce resources. From this perspective, we can view men as the
dominant group and women as the subordinate group.

5. Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by

analyzing the critical role of symbols in human in
interaction.
teraction. Gender
is something we do or perform, not something we are.

6
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #1

General Instructions: Create an outline showing the differences of the three

(3) major theoretical perspectives.

Symbolic
Functionalist Conflict
Interactionist

Definition

Views on
Gender

Examples

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #1

1. Using the following theoretical perspectives, apply it in the given

situation:
Mrs. A, a working mom of 3 kids, continues to assume the
responsibility in the household because it keeps the household
running smoothly.

a. Conflict theory
__________________
_____________________________________
__________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
____________________________________________________
______________

b. Functionalism
__________________
_____________________________________
__________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________

c. Symbolic interactionism
__________________
_____________________________________
__________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________

2. Which of the following is appropriate to the concept, we “do

gender” according to the symbolic interactionist perspective?
Explain your answer in the space below.
during half of our activities
only when they apply to our biological sex
only if we are actively following gender roles
all of the time, in everything we do
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
____________________________________________________
_______________
_____________________________________
__________________ __________________________________
_______________

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 2
GENDER IDENTITY ROLE AND DEVELOPMEN
DEVELOPMENT
T

“There may be several roles you portray in life

but the best role you can have is to be yourself.”
(MCF Siwagan)

Learning Objectiv
Objec tives
es Hormones play a huge role
At the end of this chapter, students are in gender differences and the DNA
expected to: is one of the main predictors of
behavior as men and women. Men
1. Examine the differences between and women have different brain
male and female biological makeup; structures. Women have evolved to
2. Distinguish the agents of
be the carriers of children whilst men
socialization;
3. Discuss the roles of culture and
have evolved to be the providers for
socialization in the construction of their families. Women have
gender, and; predetermined characteristics like
4. Expound the theories of being: more caring, protective and
socialization: Social Learning, and loyal than men. Men have
Co niti
nitiv
ve Dev
Develelo
o ment.
ent. predetermined characteristics like
being: more aggressive, competitive and dominant than women.

The fundamental
fundamental cause of our gender differences is our genetic
makeup, more specifically, the DNA found in our two 23rd chromosomes -
the chromosomes that dictate which sex we are.

Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Differences

Key Concepts Hormones are chemicals in the

body that regulate changes in our cells. This
Gender identity – defined as a
includes growth and is as a result very
personal conception
conception of oneself as
male or female (or rarely, both or
or
important in explaining our gender
neither) differences. You may have heard of the
largely male hormone: testosterone
testosterone and the
Gender role – refers to the largely female hormone: estrogen - and
outward expression of gender know that they have effects in our bodies
identity based on cultural and
that lead men and women to act more like,
social expectations
well, men and women.
Gender development – means
the maturation of gender identity It is well documented that there are
differences between the brain struct
structures
ures of

11
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

men and women (men have a larger hypothalamus - both the BSt and the
SDN-POA). This can be seen by studying very young children (who have not
yet had much social influence) and seeing if boys and girls act differently. The
research made by Connellan et al. (2000) showed that newborn girls were more
interested in faces (suggesting superior social skills) whilst newborn boys were
more excited by mechanical items.

Chromosomes: The Fundamental Cause of Gender Differences

Humans typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes (totaling 46) and on

the two 23rd chromosomes the DNA that decides whether a newly fertilized
ovum (egg) becomes a male or female is found. If the sperm that fertilized the
ovum is carrying a Y chromosome, then the zygote (the name given to an egg
that has just been fertilized) will contain both an X and a Y chromosome and
the baby will be a boy. If the sperm carried an X chromosome, then the zygote
will have two
two X chromosom
chromosomes es (XX) and become a girl. The above statements
statements
are empirical facts and, so we know that at its very core the cause of physical

differences in men and women is due to biological differences in DNA.

At first, the embryo (the name given to a zygote that has started to
develop) has the same sex organs whether it has XY or XX chromosomes. But
6 weeks after conception and the Y chromosome in males result in changes
that lead to the gonads
go nads becoming testicles. If the Y chromosome is not present
(and the zygote has XX chromosomes) then the gonads become ovaries. This
idea that both males and females start off with the same sex organs is where
the common 'fact' that 'all men were once women' comes from. The formation
of testicles and ovaries are very important because they are the key producers
for the sex hormones androgens (including testosterone) and estrogens which,
as mentioned in the above section, result in many gender differences.

Meanwhile, an individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is

his or her gender identity. Outward expression of gender identity, according
to cultural and social expectations, is a gender role. Either gender may live out
a gender role (a man or a woman, for instance, can be a homemaker) but not
a sex role, which is anatomically limited to one gender (only a woman can
gestate and give birth).

Gender identity appears to form very early in life and is most likely
irreversible by age 4. Although the exact cause of gender identity remains
unknown, biological, psychological, and social variables clearly influence the
process. Genetics, prenatal and postnatal hormones, differences in the brain
and the reproductive organs, and socialization all interact to mold a toddler's

12
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

gender identity. The differences brought about by physiological processes

ultimately interact with social‐learning influences to establish clear gender
identity.

Psychological and Social Influences on Gender Identity

Gender identity is ultimately derived from chromosomal makeup and

physical appearance, but this derivation of gender identity does not mean that
psychosocial influences are missing. Gender socialization, or the process
whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has created for his or
her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of her or his sense of
femaleness or maleness. If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a
female, the child believes she is a female; if a child is told he is a male and is
raised as a male, the child believes he is male.

Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the

appearance of their genitals. Parents even handle their baby girls less
aggressively
understandingthan ttheir
hey arebaby
that they eitherboys.
femaleChildren quickly
or male, as well as develop a clear
a strong desire to
adopt gender‐appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding
normally occurs within 2 years of age, according to many authorities
authorities.. In short,
biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with social environments
determine the nature of gender identity.

Developmentalists indicate that adults perceive and treat female and

male infants differently. Parents probably do this in response to having been
recipients of gender expectations as young children themselves. Traditionally,
fathers teach boys how to fix and build things; mothers teach girls how to
cook, sew, and keep house. Children then receive parental approval when they
conform to gender expectations and adopt culturally accepted and
conventional roles. All of these lessons are reinforced by additional socializing
agents, such as the media. In other words, learning gender roles always occurs
within a social context, with the values of th
thee parents and societ
societyy being pa
passed
ssed
along to the children of successive generations.

Gender roles

Gender roles are both cultural and personal. These roles determine
how males and females think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of
society. Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. These
gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what
defines masculine and feminine. While various socializing agents —educators,

13
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

peers, movies, television, music, books, and religion —teach and reinforce
gender roles throughout a child's life span, parents probably exert the greatest
influence, especially when their children are very young.

There are four major theories that can be attribut attributed

ed to the
development of a person’s identity: Psychoanalytic, Social-Learning
Social -Learning Theory,
and Cognitive-developmental Theory.

Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychological development explained that

children satisfy their basic biological motivations which were discovered
through a treatment known as psychoanalysis, the examining of the
unconscious. As Ovesey (1983) commented, “Thus, psychoanalysis was the
first comprehensive personality theory that attempted to explain the origins of
what we now call gender” He concluded that there were primary aspects of
the psychoanalytic theory: the id, ego and superego. The personality combined
the id (basic instincts such as, hunger, desires and aggression/personality for
example, an infant is 100% id), ego (reality testing and
rationalization/psychological) and the superego (conscience, moral
judgment/social).

The stages of psychosexual development were developed and based

upon an erogenous zone. If a stage is unsuccessfu
unsuccessfull and not completed it meant
that a child would become fixated on that erogenous zone and either over or
under indulge once he or she becomes an adult. The first stage called the oral
stage takes place between birth and two years old where pleasure and self-
gratification is centered on the mouth through the erotic, rooting energy of
sucking. The next stage of psychosexual development is called the anal stage.
The anus is the erogenous zone. The child must learn to control the id and
meet the demand of society and parents by becoming toilet trained. Conflicts

take
is place due toofthe
a conversion child wanting
involuntary to controlbehavior
to voluntary retentionand
andthe
elimination. There
first attempt at
controlling instinctual impulses. Sexual identity is formed in the third early
stage called the phallic stage. According to Freud, gender role development
occurs during this stage at about five or six years old where identification takes
place with the same sex parent. This is a time of discovery and pleasure which
is now focused on the genitals. It is during this stage that patterns were seen
in males and were considered the norm, yet female patterns were somehow
deviant. (Golombok & Fivush 1994, 57). It is at this age when castration
anxiety creates fear resulting in Oedipal Conflict. Also, when boys are proud
of their penis, and girls wonder why they don’t have one. By five or six the
child has completed the period of early development.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Freud’s psychoanalytic
psychoanalytic theory of gender development suggests that
gender development takes place during the third stage of his psychosexual
theory of personality development. He called this the phallic stage, which
occurs between three and six years old. During this stag e, the child’s libido is
focused on his or her genitals. Development of gender in psychoanalytic
theory is different for boys and for girls: boys experience the Oedipus complex
and identify with their father and take on a male gender role; girls experience
the Electra complex and identify with their mother and take on a female gender
role.

Social Learning Theory

The Social Learning Theory was proposed by Bandura as a way of

explaining how children acquire their gender identity based on the influence
of other people (particularly
(particularly their parents).

Stages of Learning

There are
are four
four st
stages
ages that
that a child goes through w
when
hen develop
develop gender behavior.
These are:

1 Attention. This is merely where the behavior is noticed and

observed.
2 Memory. This is when the behavior is memorized and committed
to memory.
3 Imitation. The behavior is performed or 'reproduced' based on
Imitating what they see around them.
4 Motivation. Their behavior is based on the desired consequences
or what will be gained by the behavior, either immediately or in the
near future.
This can be illustrated by the example of boys playing sepak takraw. A
boy may see his friends playing the game (attention) and then memorize this.
Later, at school, he joins in a game (imitation) and a teacher comments on how
good he is (motivation).
(motivation).

Social Learning theory is based on outward motivational factors that

argue that if children receive positive reinforcement they are motivated to
continue a particular behavior. If they receive punishment or other indicators
of disapproval they will tend to stop that behavior. In terms of gender
development, children receive praise if they engage in culturally appropriate
gender displays and punishment if they do not. When aggressiveness in boys

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

is met with acceptance, or a “boys will be boys” attitude, but a girl’s

aggressiveness earns them little attention, the two children learn different
meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus,
boys may continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their
repertoire. Socialization of children is one of the major causes of gender
differences between boys and girls. Children are encouraencouraged
ged to do the
appropriate sex-typed activities by the parents, media, and school.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

This approach focuses upon the thought processes underlying

learning. It emphasizes to cognition when understanding and explaining
behavior. This theory gives importance to the internal states of the person as
well as the environmental events; however, it is the thinking and perception
that is the key factor. The term cognition refers to "knowledge" as well as "the
process of knowing" Cognitive approach emphasizes: thoughts, feelings,
thinking, values, expectations, etc.

The theory proposes the interact

interaction
ion of mental schema and social
experience in directing gender role behavior. The cognitive approach focuses
upon the child's "understanding". A child's understanding refers to the way
he/she perceives and tackles a phenomenon. Information about gender is
organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes i.e. gender schema Gender
schema (plural schemata or schemas) is a mental framework that organizes and
guides a child understands of information relevant to gender. Example:
information about which toys are for girls and which toys are for boys form
schema that guides behavior. Example: If a son sees his mother and sisters
respected in the family, he will perceive women as respectable beings; and if
he has seen his mother being battered and maltreated by his father he will
perceive that women are taken as some less valued individuals.
Cognitive Learning states that children develop gender at their own
levels. The model, formulated by Kohlberg, asserts that children recognize
their gender identity around age three but do not see it as relatively fixed until
the ages of five to seven. This identity marker provides children with a schema
(A set of observed or spoken rules for how social or cultural interactions
should happen.) in which to organize much of their behavior and that of
others. Thus, they look for role models to emulate maleness or femaleness as
they grow older.

Children’s own cognitions are primarily responsible for gender role

development Kohlberg children identify with and imitate same-sex parents,

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

and others of their same gender after children label themselves as male or
female, the development of gender related interests and behavior quickly
follow the following stages:

1 Gender Identity: children develop a concept of what sex category

they belong to
2 Gender Consistency:
Consistency: children rearealize
lize that their gender aand
nd that of
other do not change with age, dress, or behavior appropriate female
or male activities identified and imitated, once gender consistency is
established external world rewards or punishes them for their
choices.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Summary

1. Hormones play a huge role in gender differences. Biological aspects

create a critical interplay with the gender roles pursued by an individual

2. Biological make up may play a major part on an individuals gender

identity, however, psychosocial and societal factors still influence an
individual’s view of himself/herself

3. Gender roles are both cultural and personal. It maybe derived from the
environment directly affecting the individual, however the personal
experiences of the person plays a crucial part in one’s gender role
discovery.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #2:

A. Think –Pair-Share

General Instructions: Write the traditional and modern gender roles of men
and women based on your experiences and observations in the community.
After identifying the gender roles, find a pair and compare your answers.
Answer the following questions
questions below.

Traditional Gender Roles

Men Women
1
2

3
4
5

Modern Gender Roles

Men Women
1
2

3
4
5

Guide questions:

1. What are the similarities and differences in your identified gender roles of
men and women?
______________________________________
___________________ _______________________________________
______________________ __
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
______________________ ___
_________________________________________
__________________ __________________________________________
___________________
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
______________________ ___

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

2. What do you think are the reasons why you differ with your classmate?
Explain.
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
______________________ ___
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
______________________ ___
_________________________________________
__________________ __________________________________________
___________________
_______________________________________
____________________ _______________________________________
_____________________ _

3. Did you find any overlapping between men and women gender roles? What
could be the reason for this phenomenon?
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
_________________________
_________________________________________
__________________ __________________________________________
___________________
_________________________________________
__________________ __________________________________________
___________________
______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
_________________________

4. Why do gender roles change over time?

______________________________________
__________________ _______________________________________
______________________
___
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Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #2.1
#2.1

Materials: Your own whole-body photo (3R) and glue.

Materials:
Instructions: Place your photo on the box below. Choose a theory of gender
development (psychoanalysis, social learning, and cognitive development)
that relates to your own personal gender development. Explain your answer
in 5-10 sentences beside your photo.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Assessment #2.1:
#2.1: Article Analysis

GENDER IDENTITY: NATURE VS. NURTURE?

It has long been believed by the scientific

community that the gender identity of a child was
determined by the child’s upbringing,
upbringing, surrounding
environment, and the way the child was treated
during growth. This idea was only enforced more
in the 1960’s when Dr. John Money published his
John/Joan case, claiming
claiming that a child’s gender was
constructed through nurturing, not nature.

The John/Joan case was an experiment

that occurred after two twin boys, two months
old, were sent in for a routine circumcision, but Brenda Reimer
after a mechanical malfunction, one of the boy’s growing up
external genitalia was extremely damaged. The
boy’s parents, counseled
counseled by Dr. Money, were encouraged and assured that if
they surgically made their son appear feminine, with the help of administ
administering
ering
hormones and their nurturing, they could raise the child successfully
successfully as a girl.
While Dr. Money published this experiment as a great success,
s uccess, years later, a
man named David Reimer stepped forward and identified himself as the object
of the John/Joan case. Apparently, the John/Joan case that was published was
riddled with observer bias and skewed results, and in reality, David was a
troubled, depressed, sometimes suicidal girl growing up and immediately
reassumed his male identity as soon as his parents told him the truth of his
birth at age 14, but
bu t eventually committed suicide in his late 30’s in relation to
the trauma and emotional distress incurred during his childhood.

This begs the question, is gender identity

nature and innate or is it, as Dr. Money would have
led us to believe, entirely based on cultural and
nurturing factors?

Research at the Johns Hopkins Children

Center has shown that gender identity is almost
entirely based on nature and is almost exclusively
predetermined before the birth of the baby. Two
David Reimer studies conducted by William Reiner, a child and
after reassuming adolescent psychiatrist and urologist, have
his male identity confirmed that the amount of exposure to male

23
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

hormones and androgens in utero almost exclusively decides whether the child
identifies as masculine or feminine.

In the first study, Reiner followed 14 children whose testicles and male
hormone levels were completely normal at birth, but who were born without
a penis — 12 of the children were surgically reconstructed to appear female.
Today, all 12 of the children raised as females are strongly male a-typical in
their behaviors, attitudes, friends and play and 6 of the 12 have already
reassumed their male gender identities at the ages of 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12
respectively. The 2 children who did not undergo sex reassignment surgeries
as infants developed far more normally and more similarly to their normal male
peers and were much more psychologically well-adjusted that the sex-
reassigned children.

In the second study, Reiner followed 12 genetically male children who

were born with a similar defect, in that they lacked
lacked a penis at birth. All of these
children underwent a sex reassignment surgery to appear female in infancy.
Since then, 8 of the 12 have reassigned themselves back to a male identity. Of
the 4 who remain female, 3 of the sets of parents plan to tell their child about
their genetic sex at birth “soon” and all 3 sets
se ts of parents expect that their
children will switch back to a masculine identity after learning about their bbirth
irth
sex.

Reiner comments on the results of the studies stating, “These studies

suggest that male gender identity is directly related to normal male
m ale patterns of
male hormone exposure in utero. These children demonstrate that normal
male gender identity can develop not only in the absence of the penis, but even
after the removal of testicles or castration at birth, and unequivocal rearing as
female. Rather than the environment forming these children’s gender identity,

their identity telling

environment and gender role were
them they seemfemale.”
to haveThese
developed despite a other
and consequent total
studies have caused the scientific community to reevaluate their belief that
gender identity is constructed through “nurture”. Most scientists now believe
that gender identity is something that is predetermined by a biological aspect
and cannot be chosen for a child.

This new outlook has called for the reevaluation of sex reassignment
surgeries on infants and parents who are considering one for their child are
urged with extreme caution to consider letting their child decide on their own
at a later age. Reiner believes, “These studies indicate that with time and age,
children may well know what their gender is, regardless of any and all

24
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

information and child-rearing to the contrary. They seem to be quite capable

of telling us who they are.”

Guide questions:

1. Based on the article, would you consider the John/Joan case

successful?
successful? Why?
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2. Why did David Reimer

Reimer commit suicide?
suicide?
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__________________ __________________________________________
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_

3. Is gender identity based on nature and innate or is it entirely based on

cultural and nurturing ffactors
actors aaccording
ccording to Dr. Money? Explain.
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4. Explain “gender identity is directly related to patterns of exposure in

utero.”
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5. In your own understanding from the article, which contributes more

to one’s gender development, is it nature or nurture? Defend your
answer.
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CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3
GENDER AND SEXUALITY

“Friendship can only exist between persons with similar interests and ppoints
oints of view.
Man and woman by the conventions of society are born with different
different
interests and different points of view.”
(J. August Strindberg, The Son of a Servant)

Learning Objectives Gender Differences. To

what extent the stereotypes
stereotypes of men
At the end of this chapter, students are and women are true is difficult to
expected to: judge. Even if male and female
1. Explain Human sexuality differences do exist, they must be
2. Classify the different Sexual placed in proper perspective.
orientations Simone de Beauvoir’s famous
3. Make a sound judgment on the dictum stresses that “One is not born
Issues on sexual orientations and
preferences aScience
womansuggests
but rather becomes
otherwise, andone.”
it is
4. Analyze the Sexual inequalities in
driving a whole new view of who
various societies
5. Apply the theoretical perspectives
and what we are. Males and females,
on sex and sexuality it turns out, are different from the
moment of conception, and the
difference shows itself in every
system of body and brain. In fact, men produce twice as much saliva as women.
Women, for their part, learn to speak earlier, know more words, recall them
better, pause less and glide through tongue twisters. See if you can spot gender
differences in the cartoon illustration
illustration belo
below.
w.

27
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

If the sex of a person is biologically

Key Concepts determined, the gender of a person is
Gender – as the term is used by culturally and socially constructed. There
many researchers, refers to are thus three types of biological
b iological sex (Male,
perceptions about the differences Female, Intersex) and two opposite poles in
among males and females the gender spectrum (masculine and
feminine). The principal theoretical and
Sexuality – is the quality or state political issue is whether gender as a socially
of being sexual. constructed phenomenon is related to or
determined by biology.

For example, in nineteenth century various medical theories suggested

that the female personality was determined by anatomy and women’s
reproductive functions. These views have been challenged by feminism.
Anthropological research has also shown the cultural specificity of notion
about gender, sexuality and sex-roles. For example, M. Mead showed in a
number of cross-cultural studies that, while gender differentiation is wide-
spread, the social tasks undertaken by men and women are highly variable.
There is no general relationshi
relationship
p across societies between social roles and
biological sex. Social psychologists have treated gender-identity
gender -identity as the product
pro duct
of child training rather than as biologically given. Ethnomethodology studies
‘gender’ as the problem of how individual sexuality is assigned.

More recently, critics have challenged these interpretations,

interpretations, because (1)
while sociologist
sociologistss distinguish
distinguish between sex and gender, they often treat the
latter as an expression of the former, thereby giving biology a determining
significance, and (2) they fail to provide the connection between the economic
subordination of women and its expression through the family and personal
life. In the radical critique, it is the place of women in relation to economic
production
sense, it canwhich ultimately
be argued determines
that ‘gender’ male/female
is analogous to classdifferences. In The
relationships. this
task of establishing systematic, causal connections between capitalism, class
and patriarchy has, however, proved to be highly problematic.

Theoretical attempts
attempts to develop a sociological perspective on
biological sex, gender, sex-roles and personality have nevertheless transformed
many taken-for-granted assumptions in a number of sociological topics. For
example, feminists within the psychoanalytic tradition have challenged the
basic ideas of Freud by showing that the Oedipus complex, penis envy and
castration complex should be interpreted as features of the symbolic world of
patriarchal power. (Nicholas Abercrombie, Stephen Hill and Brian S. Turner.
Dictionary of Sociology. The Penguin. New Edition. 1994. Pp.180-181)

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One of the most heard-of behavior among sexual deviations is

homosexuality. It is not only common in one place but is even universal. Many
human societies, such as in Ancient Greece, accepted it as normal.
n ormal. During the
Middle Ages it is probable that there were homosexuals not only in military
camps but also in religious monasteries and convents. This sexual behavior
was also frequent among men of intellect and fame: Michael angelo, the
greatest sculptor of the Renaissance, cherished homosexual ideas and passions;
Marlowe, one of the chief poets of the Renaissance in England, was clearly of
the same feeling, and there is also ground for believing that Bacon was one
(Havelock, Ellis, Psychology of Sex. New York: The New American Library,
1957, 162).

Sex Differences. In her article, “Sexism,” Marilyn Frye argues that the
whole system of gender is really one of power. She implies that masculinity
masculinity is
about dominance, and femininity is about subordination. She notes that we go
to a great deal of trouble to keep the sexes distinct; even products that have
no inherent differences---like shampoos, deodorants, and razor blades —are

packaged differently for men and women.

Men and women talk, move, and sit differently from each other. In a
myriad of unnecessary details, men and women are different. Although sex
differences in brain and body take their inspiration from the central agenda of
reproduction, they don’t end there. “We’ve practiced medicine as though only
a woman’s breasts, uterus and ovaries made her unique—and as though her
heart, brain and every other part of her body were ident
identical
ical to those of a man,”
says Marianne J. Legato, M.D., a cardiologist at Columbia University who
spearheads the push for gender differences. Legato notes that women live
longer but break down more. Everyone gains from the new imperative to
explore sex differences. When we know why depression favors women two to
one, or our
change whyunderstanding
symptoms of of
heart
howdisease literally
our bodies andhit
ourwomen
minds in the gut, it will
work.

Whatever sets men and women apart, it all starts with a single
chromosome: the male-making Y, a puny thread bearing a paltry 25 genes,
compared with the lavish female X, studded with 1,000 to 1,500 genes. But sex
genes themselves don’t leave everything to hormones. Over the past few years,
scientists have come to believe that they too play ongoing roles in gender-
flavoring the brain and behavior.

Females, it turns out, appear to have backup genes that protect their
brains from big trouble. To level the genetic playing field between men and
women, nature n
normally
ormally shuts off one of the two X chromosomes in every

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

cell in females. But about 19 percent of genes escape inactivation; cells get a
double dose of some X genes. Having a fallback gene may explain why females
are far less subject than males to mental disorders from autism to
schizophrenia.

Ruben Gur, Ph.D. discovered that females have about 15 to 20 percent

more gray matter than males which is another major sex difference: Men,
overall, have larger brains than women, (their heads and bodies are larger), but
the sexes score equally well on tests of intelligence.

Gray matter, made up of the bodies of nerve cells and their connecting
dendrites, is where the brain’s heavy lifting is done. The female brain is more
densely packed with neurons and dendrites, providing concentrated processing
power---and more thought---linking capability. Meanwhile, the larger male
cranium is filled with more white matt
matter
er and cerebrospinal fluid. “That fluid is
probably helpful,” says Gur, director of the Brain Behavior Laborat
Laboratory
ory at the
University of Pennsylvania. “It cushions the brain, and men are more likely to

get their heads banged about.”

Moreover, white matter, made of the long arms of neurons encased in
a protective film of fat, helps distribute processing throughout the brain. It
gives males superiority at spatial reasoning. White matter also carries fibers that
inhibit “information spread” in the cortex. That allows a single-mindedness
single -mindedness
that spatial problems require, especially difficult ones. The harder a spatial task,
Gur finds, the more circumscribed the right-sided brain activation in males,
but not in females. The white matter advantage of males, he believes,
suppresses activation
activation of areas that could interfere with work.

On the other hand, the white matter in women’s brains is concentrated

in theside
right corpus callosum,
of the which
brain to pitchlinks thelanguage
in on brain’s hemispheres, and difficult
tasks. The more enables the
the
verbal task, the more global the neural participat
participation
ion required---a response
that’s stronger in females.

Furthermore, women have another heady advantage---faster blood

flow to the brain, which offsets the cognitive effects of aging. Men lose more
brain tissue with age, especially in the left frontal cortex, the part of the brain
that thinks about consequences and provides self-control.
self-control. “You can see the
tissue loss by age 45, and that may
m ay explain why midlife crisis is harder on men,”
says Gur. Also, he added that, “Men have the same impulses, but they lose the
ability to consider long-term
long-term consequences.”
consequences.”

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #3

General Instruct
Instructions:
ions:
1. Form a group of 5-7 members.
2. Select a leader-facilitator,
leader-facilitator, a recorder, and a presenter.
3. Brainstorm on gender difference from their experiences and/or
observations.
4. Discuss your group output to the class.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #3

Do
is not born you agree
a woman with Simone
but rather de Beauvoir’s
becomes one” famous
? Defend your dictum,
dictum, “One
answer.
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CHAPTER
Chapter 4
4
GENDER AND FAMILY

“Call it a clan, call it a network, call it a tribe, call it a family.

Whatever you call it, whoever you are, you need one.”
(Jane Howard)

Socialization plays an
Learning Objectives important part in determining what
At the end of this chapter, students are children believe to be acceptable
expected to: behaviors for members of their own
sex. As defined, socialization is the
1. Explain the importance of process by which people learn the
socialization in the child’s gender
characteristics of their group-the
development.
2. Point out the norms in selecting
knowledge, skills, attitudes, values,
marriage partner. and actions thought appropriate for

them
Differentiate the gender roles in (Henslin,2007).
3.
marriage. the family is consideredNoteworthy,
the primary
4. Relate the different forms of agent of socialization. It is within the
marriage and its authority. family that the first socializing
5. Assess the parenthood transition.
influence is encountered by most
6. Evaluate the emerging families as
children, and this influence affects
alternative to traditional families.
them for the rest of their lives.
7. Analyze the various issues
confronted by Filipino family
(Eshleman, Cashion, Basirico,1988).
today. Needless to state that children are as
well socialized to believe that getting
married is what adult men and women do.

Mate Selection
Do women and men love differently? One theory is that gendered
beliefs about love are shaped by how we as a culture define the roles of men
and women (Birth and Merville, 1994). Historically, men are considered to
value resources and that women are dependent to men for economic rresources
esources
(Rubin, Peplau, & Hill, 1981).

Choosing a life partner is still influenced by the cultural barriers or

restrictions which limits the pool of eligible partners (Cate and Lloyd, 1992).
Cultural barriers are societal norms and expectations that restrict the choice of
marital partners to those with certain demographic or personal characteristics.
characteristics.
Homogamy is the tendency to choose to marry someone similar in age,

35
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

education, religion, social class, and race. Heterogamy refers to the tendency of
people to marry others not like themselves on the same characteristics (Bird
and Merville, 1994). Basically, people are most likely inclined to choose a
partner of the same status, class, race, religion and family values for the main
reason that commonality establish a lasting relationship. This norm tends to
block the relationships between people of o f different backgrounds. Nonetheless,
heterogamy is becoming increasingly acceptable (Surra, 1991). In Filipino society,
homogamy is observed mostly among Muslims and other religious groups who
adhere to their traditions and beliefs in terms of marriage. However, on the
dawn of the internet age, access to social media has started to alter how people
peop le
see each other resulting to a more dynamic appreciation of different
backgrounds. Social media has broken through topographical barriers, socio
economic statuses, education backgrounds, and even language barriers,
resulting to more heterogamic relationships. This notion aligns to the premise
of Technological Determinism theory which states that cultural and societal
norms may be altered or are dependent on the technology being consumed by
its individuals.

Gender Roles in Marriage

Aside the legal mandates imposed on marriage,

marriage, people make personal
adjustment
adjustme nt when they marry. Spouses accept certain cultural prescriptions for
husband and wife roles-role taking-while working out discrepancies between
each other’s marital
marital assumptions. They also actively create marital roles based
b ased
on their own individual and couple values, needs, and goal-role making.

Functionalism assumes that the family system operates best when

husband and wife do not overlap roles. In a traditional nuclear family which
consists of wife, husband, and their dependent children who live together in
their own residence, tasks are divided so that the husband is the breadwinner
with the wife maintaining the responsibility
responsibility of domestic tas
tasks,
ks, including child
care. In this perspective, everyone is assuming a role for the full function of
the family. The father provides, the mother manages the domestic household,
and their dependents are to pursue the same roles in the future. This traditional
view of marital affair has been seen as one of the limiting factors
factors of women’s
agency all throughout different cultures. Cultural and societal reinforcement
of such norm has created an alienation on women since, if they will deviate
from such gender presumptions, they will be tagged as counter intuitive to
societal order, that will trigger unnecessary backlashes to their living
conditions.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

On the other hand, Conflict theories view marriage and family as made
up of individuals who possess differing amounts of resources and power, and
who have individual interest to consider and defend. The conflict theorist
assumes that women and wives today explore and experiment newer roles
which have been the prerogative of men and husband in the past. When the
wives enter into the labor force the sharing of household tasks become the
primary concern of the couple in order to balance the harmony of marital
relationship. Bloode and Wolfe (1960:63) concluded that husbands feel
obligated to take on an appreciably larger share of the house works when their
wives are working. This being so the wives need the cooperation of the
husbands to take part in the household chores especially both of them are
working and may also
also give each other res
respite
pite from work.
work.

Forms of Marriage

There are various forms of marriage in different societal contexts,

however in the Philippines what is accepted as a form of marriage may be
either monogamous or polygamous/polygyny.
polygamous/polygyny.
Monogamy permits a man to take only one spouse at a time. This is
practiced by almost everybody and sanctioned by the church. Its advantage
over polygamy is that it offers a more balanced division of labor and minimizes
emotional and psychological tensions.

Polygamy is a plural marriage wherein a man can marry to two or more

women at the same
same time. This
This is practiced
practiced by Mu
Muslims
slims and ot
other
her tribal groups
whose laws, religion, or traditions aallow
llow them to have more wiv
wives
es at the same
time. This is allowed among muslims due to the Philippine Government’s
recognition of the Sharia Law, or Islamic Code
Code derive from the Quora’n.

Marriage Based on Authority

It is well settled that authority may be vested on the husband, the wife,
or both as the case maybe depending on the prevailing norms observed by
spouses.

Patriarchal family is one which the authority is vested on the oldest male
in the family, often the father.

Family is one which the authority is vested on the mother’s

Matriarchal Family
kin. This presupposed that the mother dominates the households.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Egalitarian family is one which the husband and wife exercise a more or
Egalitarian
less equal amount of authority. Egalitarianism in marriage is strongly
s trongly associated
with employment opportunities
opportunities for women. This is one which marriage is no
longer tied to traditional beliefs about gender roles. Household tasks are
divided by skills, desires, rather than what is seen as a masculine or feminine.
There is an equitable distribut
distribution
ion of ho
household
usehold chores between the husband
and wife.

Family Relations

The Parenthood Transition

Motherhood
The belief that a woman’s greatest greatest fulfillment and ultimate
achievement will be her role as a mother is socialized into girls very early in
life. The “motherhood mandate” assumes that it is the woman’s obligation to
dedicate her life unselfishly to the raising of her children and to be constant
constantlyly
on call for her child’s need (Russo, 1979). From this parlance, it is viewed that
mother’s role said to be instinctive or comes naturally. On the contrary, it
pervades guilt in women who work outside the home for personal or economic
purposes. Employed wives are not immune to this motherly role since they are
absent most of the time at home in lieu of work and may heavily feel gguilty
uilty in
the process.

Fatherhood
The fact that most fathers take their
their breadwinning role seriously does
not diminish other interest they have in their families. Like women, men also
see raising a family as a very important goal in their lives, although they still
believe women should be primarily responsible for child care (Astin, 1985).
From the foregoing, it is presumed that a father assumes the role of provider,
breadwinner, and disciplinarian among other things attached to his social role
as a father.

Alternatives
Alternatives to
t o Traditional Families

The massive social change occurring in other segments of society has

impacted the family to a great extent. As a result of alterations involving such
areas as expanded employment opportunitie
oppo rtunitiess for women and men, separation,
annulment, remarriage, and definitions regarding acceptable parenting
behavior, non-traditional families are emerging.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Househusbands
The paths are virtually unchartered for men who give up their
breadwinning roles to take on primarily responsibilities for household tasks
and child care.

Mothers and the Single-Parent Household

Financially uncertainty is one of the problems faced by the single-
parent family, particularly the woman. Being separated from the husband, or
as a result of separation, annulment of marriage, and divorce, the wife carries
the burden of rearing the children alone. Under the law, the child below 7 years
old the custody of the child automatically goes to the mother unless the court
decides otherwise. Moreover, single mothers must rely more in their children
to get certain household tasks completed yet are also expected to be available
to their children for any crisis which comes up at home or in the work place.

In fine, the only positive side of this situation is the wife has the
autonomy in making decision and it makes her life better
b etter without her husband
than to stay in a miserable marriage.
Fathers and the Single-Parent Household
As far as household tasks and child care is concerned, single fathers
appear to adapt rather well, perceive themselves as capable as the primary
parent, share most of the household responsibilities with their children, and
do not rely on outside help to a great extent (Chang and Deinard, 1982).
Another study concluded that the inordinate responsibilities associated with
single parenting, it is impossible to weigh whether single fathers or single
mothers as a group have an easier time adapting (Greif, 1985).

Gay and Lesbian Families and Relationships

Marriage between homosexuals is not universally accepted, though
there are other countries that legalized same sex union. As such is still the
heated debate in Philippine Congress nowadays as to whether or not to pass
such bill of same sex marriage considering Filipinos are typically conservative
with respect to the sanctity of marriage. In some other countries like the United
States, yet a small but growing number of gay men and lesbian women have
gained custody of their own children or have adopted children and live in
permanent households with them and/or their homosexual partners. The
Supreme Court has ruled that all States must recognize Same Sex Union.

39
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Filipino Family Issues and Relations

Filipino family is undergoing many changes due to myriad factors that

affect the family per se, among these are geographical mobility, increasing
population, industrialization and urbanization, the changed status of Filipino
women, and mass
mate selection media
based (Panopio,
on free choice.2004). Today,have
Sex norms emerging patterns
changed. Younginclude
girls
initiate in inviting the boys out. Premarital sex, early pregnancies, children out
of wedlock, and live-in unions are now accepted and permitted. Marriage
markets are now available via social networking. There is also the emergence
of solo-parent families because of marital separation, migration, illegitimacy
and adoption even by single men and women.

These social changes bring about conflict in values and mores, which
may in turn bring about social problems. Problems that may beset the Filipino
families today are conflict in the families, separation and desertion, abortion,
illegitimacy, prostitution, juvenile delinquency, drug abuse and others. The
extent of these problems is difficult to ascertain.
Summary

Family is considered the primary agent of child’s socialization. It is

within the family that the first socializing influence is encountered by most
children, and this influence affects them for the rest of their lives.

Selecting marriage partner is governed by certain norms which limits

the choices of couple in choosing a mate which could either be homogamy to
marry someone similar in age, education, religion, social class, and race or
heterogamy to marry others not like themselves on the same characteristics.
Gender role in marriage is trapped with the traditional view of family where
wife do the domestic tasks including child care while the husband is the sole
breadwinner. However, the traditional nuclear family is challenged upon entry
of women in the work force paving the way to egalitarian family so much so
that the household chores and child rearing are equally divided by the spouses.
Furthermore, alternative families to traditional families are as well emerging
due to various factors that cause the significant change in the family structure
like the househusband, single-parents, and gay and lesbian relations.

Inevitably, families are affected by social change brought by mass

media, increase of population, industrialization
industrialization and urbanization
urbanization and the like.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts

1. Family – primary agent

agent of the child’s socialization.
2. Socialization – is the process by which people learn the characteristics of their
group-the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and actions thought appropriate for

them
3. Homogamy – is the tendency to choose to marry someone similar in age,
education, religion, social class, and race
4. Heterogamy – refers to the tendency of people to marry others not like
themselves on the same characteristics
5. Monogamy – permits a man to take only one spouse at a time
6. Polygyny – is a plural
p lural marriage wherein a man can marry to two or more women
at the same time
7. Patriarchal family – is one which the authority is vested on the oldest male in
the family, often the father
8. Matriarchal Family – iiss one which the authority is vested on the mother’s kin
9. Egalitarian family – is one which the husband and wife exercise a more or less
equal amount of authority

10. Motherhood
of her children–and
woman’s obligation on
obligation
to be constantly to
t o call
dedicate herchild’s
for her life unselfishly
need to the raisin
r aising
g
11. Fatherhood – father’s obligation in raising his family
12. Househusbands – men who give up their breadwinning roles to take on primarily
responsibilities
responsibilities for household tasks and child care
13. Mothers and the Single-Parent Household – the single mothers who take the
sole responsibility in raising the children as a result of separation, annulment, and
divorce
14. Fathers and the Single-Parent Household – the single fathers who take t ake the sole
responsibility in raising the children as a result of separation, annulment, and
divorce
15. Gay and Lesbian Families and Relationships – children raised by homosexuals
are apparently recognized and accepted

41
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

42
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #4: Role Play

General Instructions: The class will be divided into groups, and then they
will choose what type of traditiona
traditionall or alternative
alternative families they will portray
portray
in order to illustrate the gender role in the family.

Reflection:

43
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

44
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #4

Prove or contradict the following statements.

1. God planned for woman to be under her husband’s rule.
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
_________________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
_____________
______________________________________
___________________ ___________________________________
________________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
2. Marriage is beneficial
beneficial to men.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________________________
________________

45
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 5
Chapter 5
GENDER AND EDUCATION

"To the hardworking soul, gender does not dictate wisdom nor skill."
(JE Patrimonio)

Learning Objectives
In all aspects of the school and its
surrounding education community, the
At the end of this chapter, students are rights of the whole child, and all children, to
expected to: survival, protection, development and
participation
participa tion are at the centre. This means
1. Summarize the influence of that the focus is on learning which
education process to gender issues;
strengthens the capacities of children to act
2. Examine the impact of education
on gender issues and struggles, progressively on their own behalf through
and; the acquisition of relevant knowledge, useful
3. Illustrate the importance of women
wo men skills and appropriate attitudes; and which
empowerment. creates for children, and helps them create
for themselves and others, places of safety,
security and healthy interaction. (Bernard, 1999)

In the context of our educational institutions, this presents an

inevitable debate on matters of gender equality in education. According to
Frederick H. Harbinson, “A country which is unable to develop the skills and
knowledge of its people and to utilize them effectively in the national econ
economy
omy
will be unable to develop anything else.” It is in this r egard that our formal
education systems have become our primary institutional mechanism for the
development of knowledge and skills, as well as attitudes and values that will
enable individuals to effectively contribute to society.

The value of education

education is, therefore, widely acknowledged.
acknowledged. According
to Eirene P. Mesa, we recognize it (education) as a vital instrument for the
improvement of welfare and alleviation of poverty. Internationally, education
is recognized as a leading global concern.

This premise makes equal access to education important because it

allows the possibility for social and economic mobility especially among
marginalized sectors of society. It is believed that education is an important
factor in ending the vicious cycle of poverty through the enhancement of skills
of the underprivileged. It is also clear that education does not just benefit the

47
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts individual but the economy as a

whole because of the
Education - “the aggregate of all the improvement in the quality of
processes by which a person develops
human capital brought about by
abilities, attitudes and other forms of
behavior
behavi or of practical values in the society education. Despite this, the
struggle of making education more
in which
which s/heare
people lives; the social
subjected to theprocess by
influence accessible to the masses is a
of selected and controlled environment problem many countries still face.
(especially that of the school), so that they
may obtain social competence and
optimum individual development” (Good,
In recent years, increasing
1973) attention has been paid to equity
issues in education especially
espe cially in the
Gender - refers to a culture's social international arena. As several of
construction of differences between the these studies suggest, access to
sexes education among various groups
in many countries is severely
unequal (Thomas et al., 2001). For a lot of countries, disparities among
geographical areas,
the Philippines across
is not social
exempt classes
from theseand even between sexes still exist and
gaps.

“Philippine Education is a product of long history of struggle.”

(Durban et.al., 2012) Understanding the inequality in the Philippines in terms
of education over the years is of great interest because the unequal distribution
of educational opportunities is a representation of even larger welfare losses
for society. As pointed out in the Philippine Human Development Report
(2000), “insufficient or poor education deprives a person of the means of
doing and becoming.” Education increases productivity and creativity,
whereas unequal access to schooling opportunities may create greater
inequities (Alonzo, 1995).

It is useful to explore education inequality across different facets of

Philippine society to gain a better grasp of both our economic and social
situation and for the purposes of this course, we cannot stress enough how
important it is to also study this inequality within genders. This is largely due
to the fact that, although the country has achieved some level of gender
equality in education, and gender statistics show that we are one of those
countries where the little disparity in education generally favors females, the
general discussion of dispersion of education within males and females has
been rarely, if not at all touched.

48
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

According to the Philippine

Philippine Commission
Commission on Women:

● The 2008 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS)
shows that of the estimated 68 million Filipinos 10 years old and over in 2008,
95.6% are basically literate. The basic literacy rate among females is 96.1% while
95.1% among males.

● Functional literacy among females in the same period is also higher at 88.7% as
against 84.2% among males.

● In the 2003 FLEMMS, the results show that 8 out of 100 (more than 2 million)
m illion)
Filipino women and 11 out of 100 (around 3 million) Filipino men cannot read and
write.

● There were an estimated 5 million illiterates of the 58 million Filipinos 10 to 64

years old during that
that period.

● Women
estimatedwho are million
at 26 considered
(90basically
for everyliterate (those who
100 women), canthan
higher only men
read at
andanwrite) were
estimated
25 million (87 in every 100 men). This is evident in the elementary and high school
completion rates where females were consistently higher than males.

● Aside from aacquiring

cquiring basic
basic lliteracy,
iteracy, women with nu
numerical
merical skills (functional literacy)
were estimated at 25 million (86 for every 100 women), also higher than men with
numerical skill estimated at 24 million (82 for every 100 men).

● Another requisite of functional literacy aside from the basic reading, writing and
numerical skill is the abilit
abilityy to communicate and comprehend.
comprehend. In that period, there
were an estimated 20 million (69 in every 100) women in this level of functional
literacy while men in this level were estimated at 18 million only (63 in every 100).
● Girls have fared better in terms of enrolment indicators in elementary and secondary
education. At public elementary level during the school year 2010-2011, female Net
Enrollment Ratio (NER) was computed at 91.07 percent while m male
ale NER was
lower at 88.78 percent. This means that there were around 9 in every 100 girls and
11 in every 100 boys aged 6 to 11 who did not go to school during that period.

● The Gender Parity Index (GPI) which is used to assess differences between girls and
boys enrollment is computed at 1.03 (103 girls in every 100 boys) which means that
more girls had enrolled in elementary education than boys during that period.

49
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

● The Net Enrollment Ratio in the public secondary level during the same school year
was lesser compared with elementary level. Female NER was 66.09 percent (66 in
every 100 girls) while male NER was 56.63 percent (57 in every 100 boys) all aged
12 to 15 years. There was a greater disparity between girls and boys in high school
at 1.17 GPI which is equivalent to 117 girls in every
eve ry 100 boys.

● The completion rates for SY 2010-2011 indicated that more girls were able to
complete the prescribed number of years in both elementary and secondary education.
The completion rate of females at the elementary level was 77.14 percent (77 in every
100 girls), while male completion rate was 67.65 percent (68 in every 100 boys)
with 1.14 GPI (114 girls in every 100 boys).

● The completion rate of female in the secondary level is higher at 80.27 percent (80 in
every 100 girls) compared with that of male at 69.88 percent (70 in every 100 boys),
with gender disparity at 1.15 GPI or equivalent to 115 girls in every 100 boys.

● Average Dropout Rate (ADR) at the elementar

elementaryy level was lower for female at 5.02
percent
and 7 incompared withboys
every 100 m
male
ale at 7.45
failed percent.
to finish This means
the school that 5 in every
year 2010-2011. The100 girls
Gender
Parity Index is computed at 0.67 which implies that only 69 girls in every 100 boys
dropped out in that period.

● For the school year, 2006-2007, the recorded number of enrollees in government
Madrasah elementary sschool
chool reache
reachedd a total of 24
240,072
0,072 students. It accounted barely
for 2 percent of the total enrollment for that period. Females were recorded at 126,213
(52.57%) while males at 113,859 (47.43%). The number of high school students
in Madrasah schools was very minimal compared to elementary data. The recorded
number was only 34,241 with females accounting for 57.24 percent while males at
42.76 percent.

● For the same school year, the number of students in the elementary level who belong
to the indigenous peoples was 337,616 or barely 3 percent of the total enrolment in
the elementary level. Females were slightly less than males at 167,610 (49.65%).
High school records showed a total of 86,771 students from the indigenous peoples,
of which 53.76 percent (46,644) were females.

● For higher education enrollment during the school year 2005-2006, females
accounted for more than half of the total 2,483,645 enrollees at 54.48 percent
compared with males at 45.52 percent. In terms of school preference, 6 in every 10
women and 7 in every 10 men preferred to enroll in private universities and colleges
than in public.

50
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

● For the same school year, Medical and Allied Discipline courses posted the highest
percentage of female enrollees at 27.44 percent followed by Business Administration
Administration
and Related Discipline at 24.35 percent. In the preceding school year, Business
Administration and Related Discipline posted the highest percentage of female
enrollees at 24.77 percent followed by Medical and Allied Discipline at 23.25

percent. courses,
nursing The increasing
may havenumber
caused ofthisstudents,
surge. both female and male, who took up

● Among the 263,634 graduates for school year 2005-2006, female graduates
accounted for 56.61 percent (149,246) while males accounted for 43.39 percent
(114,388). Business Administration and Related Discipline produced 48,369
(18.35%) female graduates while Medical and
an d Allied Discipline produced 37,371
(14.18%) female graduates. Education and Teacher Training which came third
produced 24,523
24,523 (9.30%) fefemale
male graduates.

● Among women enrollees and gra

graduates
duates in vocational courses
courses from July 2005-August
2006, Housekeeping and Guestroom Maintenance accounted for the highest number
at 13.27
least percent
number and 14.07
of enrollees percent
at 7.40 respectively.
percent Jewelryat making
and graduates accounted for the
6.73 percent.

● As of July 2010, the percentage of licensed professional women was higher at 63.7
percent than licensed professional men at 36.3 percent (1,860,901
(1,860,901 vs. 1,060,404
1,060,404).
).
And of the total 1,860,901 professional women, Teachers accounted for the highest
percentage at 44 percent (819,377),
(819,377), followed by Nurses at 27 percent (504,902).
Among the women
wom en dominated professions, Midwives top the list followed by Nutri-
Nutri -
Dietitians, Social Workers, Pharmacists, Librarians, Guidance Counselors,
C ounselors, Dental
Hygienists, Interior Designers, Teachers, and Nurses.

● In the school year 2008-2009, data revealed that 89.58 percent of the public
elementary school teachers are female; only 10.42 percent are male teachers. In the
public secondary schools, 77.06 percent are female; only 22.94 percent are male
teachers.

● The 2007 Census of Population also shows that about 3 out of 5 persons (63.3
percent) in the household population 5 to 24 years
years old had attended sc
school
hool at anytime
during the School Year 2007 to 2008. School attendance was higher among females
(64.0 percent of all females aged 5 to 24 years) than among males (62.7 percent of
all males aged 5 to 24 years) during the said school year.

● Other census finding is that, among those with academic degrees, there were more
females (56.2 percent) than males (43.8 percent). Similarly, am
among
ong those with post
baccalaureate courses, females (56.3 percent) outnumbered males (43.7 percent).

51
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

According to Carolyn Medel-Anonuevo, as women's education

became one of the key development objectives in the nineties, it also became
crucial to examine the assumptions
assumption s that have become the basis for the projects,
programs and policies that were formulated to this end. More over and in
recent years, the concept of women empowerment has been associated to the

range of activities
included. undertaken
In all these, by and
an important for women
question to be in different
raised areas,perspective
is: Whose education
p erspective
are we going use to evaluate
evaluate these assumptions and its overarching outcomes?

Since the "UN Declaration of the Decade of Women" in 1975,

attention and action on women's concerns have steadily increased and
education, whether it be the form of consciousness-raising or skills acquisition,
was one of the areas women's organizations, government agencies and
international donor agencies focused on. The underlying assumption was that
if women understood their conditions, knew their rights and learned skills
traditionally denied to them, empowerment would follow. Eighteen years have
passed and there are different views as to whether such assumptions about
increasing access
power balance to education
in favor and(UNESCO
o f women.
of training have resulted
e forinEducation,
Institute
Institut the tilting 1995)
of the

However, the ultimate takeaway from this lessons is that education

provides agency. Removing access to education is prevent a person to develop
their own capabilities to act with their full capacity.
c apacity. That is why it is imperative
for the State to act on the UN Declaration since it is the greatest equalizer.
Not all genders are equal, however, the State must pursue possible areas of
equity, one of such is the maximazing of access to education of all genders,
especially the most marginalized ones.

52
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #5

General Instructions:
desired field Post a picture
that you consider of an
your role expert
model andofinclude
the opposite sex in your
an explanation of
why you look up to him/her in the caption.
caption.

53
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

54
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Assessment #5

General Instructions:

1. Form a group of 3-5 members.

2. Identify a department in the university as your respondent for this

assignment.

3. Initially, discuss and list down among your members all your gender-
related assumptions
assumptions regarding your respondent.

4. Set an appointment with the department chair (or any qualified

representative)
representative) for a short interview covering the following questions:

a. What is the general gender distribution of enrollees in your

program?
b. In terms
each of performance, how well do they perform relative to
other?
c. What is the general gender distribution of those who successfully
complete the program?
d. If the information is available, what is the general gender
distribution of those who are successfully employed and excel in
your industry?

5. Compare your original assumptions with the information you have

gathered from your interview and submit a reflection paper based on the
following guide questions:

a. Where were your original

original gender-related assumptions
assumptions based
based on?
b. Based on the information you have gathered, were your
assumptions true? Why or why not? Please explain
comprehensively.
c. What are your major realizations from this assignment and how
are you challenged by these realities?

55
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

56
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #5

Reflection:

57
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 6
Chapter 8
GENDER AND WORK

“Countries with higher levels of gender equality have higher economic growth.
Companies with more women on their boards have higher returns.
Peace agreements thatwith
Parliaments include
morewomen
womenare m ore
more
take up successful.
a
wider range of issues---including health,
education, anti-discrimination,
and child support.”
(Ban Ki-moon)

Learning Objectives The past 30 years have

seen the emergence of the
At the end of this chapter, the students are working mom, the single mom,
expected to: and the supermom. Such surge is
1. specify the contributions of women in seen
the as women’s deviation
traditional narrative from
fro m
that
the labor force;
2. give examples of successful women in
women, once becoming a parent,
the business; must surrender all of her agency
3. clarify the factors influencing to household work.
women’s choice of work, occupation,
or career; Traditional Gender Ideology
4. generate the effects of working
wo rking women emphasizes that men’s sphere is
on the family of orientation and family
work and women’s sphere is the
of procreation, and;
home. The implicit assumpt
assumption
ion is
5. assess the effects on the society
women in the workplace. that men have greater power than
women. This is commonly
referred to as the patriarchal
system, because such traditional
perspective tends to sway power towards men and women to be at serviced to
such authority.

On the other hand, the Egalitari an Gender Ideology proposes that power
Egalitarian
is distributed equally between men and women and that each group identifies
equally with the same spheres. This ideology focuses on the “humanist” aspect
of gender, being that both men and women are human beings, and that their
life should be seen as equal to each other. This view pushes an equalized view
of men and women, and blurs the line between gender roles. Men can cook,
women can can fight, men can
can housekeep,
housekeep, women can work physically challenging

59
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

tasks, men can cry, women can tank. However, statistics

statistics prove otherwise. Here
are some facts about gender inequalit
in equality:
y:

● In 2015 there were only 21 female heads of state in the entire world.
● Women currently hold 24, or 4.8 percent of CEO positions at S&P 500

●
companies.
Only 30% of the world’s researchers are women.
● Over 150 countries have at least one actively sexist law.
● Each minute, 28 girls
girls are married before th
they
ey are ready.
● 1 in 3 women have experienced physical or sexual violence at some point in their
lifetime.
● In most countries, women only earn between 60 and 75% of men’s wages—for the
same work.
● There are approximately 781 million illiterate adults worldwide —two-thirds of
whom are women.
● 62 million girls are denied in education all over the world.
● In 2015, only one-half of the world’s working-age women were in the labor force,
compared to 77% working-age men.
● Women with full-time jobs still earn only about 77% of their male counterparts’
earnings.

Gender operates at all levels of social life and is deeply embedded in

how work is organized, rewarded, and experienced. The sociological study of
gender and work emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, as women’s labor force
participation rates rose and as the Women’s Movement began calling attent
attention
ion
to gender inequality at home and on the job. The field has evolved over time;
conceptual frameworks have expanded and empirical foci have shifted in
response to economic and societal changes. Early research focused primarily

on workers
in their and
work sought and
attitudes to determine
behavior.whether and researchers
Over time, how men and women
have paid differ
more
attention to the social relations of work. Studies here focus on how the
structure and culture of the workplace shape men’s and women’s social
interactions and behavior. A more recent stream of
o f literature in the gender and
work area views gender as embedded within work structures and
organizations. In this view, gender is not just an attribute that people bring
with them to the job, but is built into the workplace itself. The development
of new conceptual frameworks has been accompanied by new issues and
topics. For example, the rise of the highly feminized service sector prompted
an interest in the distinctive characteristics of these jobs. As dual-earner
families became the norm, researchers increased attention to the ways that
gender shapes work-family relations. Other topics, such as those related to

60
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts gender discrimination and inequality, have

been of interest to gender and work
Traditional Gender Ideology scholars since the field’s emergence in the
maintains that men’s sphere is 1960s.
work and women’s sphere is the
home.

Egalitarian Gender Ideology

proposes that power is distributed
equally between men and women
and that each group identifies
equally with the same spheres.

Gender equality in the world of work is multidimensional. Broadly, key

dimensions include labor force participation, employment, firm and farming 2
Gender at Work characteristics, earnings, and job quality
quality.. The last is the most
difficult to measure and varies by context. However, full-time wage
employment is a strong predictor of subjective well-being, and jobs that
provide higher earnings, benefits, rights, and opportunities for skills
development are more likely to expand women’s agency. On virtually virtually every
global measure, women are more economically excluded than men. Trends
suggest that women’s labor force participation (ages 15–64) worldwide over
the last two decades has stagnated, declining from 57 to 55 percent globally.
Participation is as low as 25 percent in the Middle East and North Africa.
Globally, Gallup estimates
estimates that men are n
nearly
early twice as likely as women to have
full-time jobs—and, in South Asia, they are more than three times as likely.3
Gender gaps are evident among farmers, entrepreneurs, and employees alike.
Because of gender-specific constraints, female farmers tend to have lower
output per unit of land and are less likely to be active in commercial farming
than men. In the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, the value of output per
hectare of female-headed households has been estimated to be 35 percent

61
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

lower than that of male-headed households, a disparity stemming mainly from

unequal access to productive inputs.4 Female entrepreneurs typically operate
smaller firms and in less profitable sectors. In Latin America and the
Caribbean, half of established businesses owned by women have no
employees, compared to 38 percent of businesses owned by men.5 Female

employees
likely to be are more likely
promoted, and to
arework in temporary
concentrated and part-time
in occupations andjobs, arewith
sectors less
lower barriers to entry. Women and girls also do the vast majority of unpaid
care and housework. Women generally earn less than men. ILO analysis of 83
countries shows that women in paid work earn on average between 10 and 30
percent less than men.6 Gaps are particularly acute in the Middle East and
North Africa, but also persist in high-income OECD countries. Gender
sorting into different jobs, industries, and firm types explains much of the pay
gap. Throughout the world, women are concentrated in less-productive jobs
and run enterprises in less-productive sectors, with fewer opportunities for
business scale-up or career advancement.
advancement.

IMPACT OF GENDER ON LEADERSHIP

Masculine Leadership Feminine Leadership

✔ Practices Transactional
Transactional ✔ Practices Transformat
Transformational
ional
leadership style leadership style
✔ More autocratic and less ✔ Less autocratic and more
democratic democratic
✔ Assertive ✔ Flexible
✔ Task oriented ✔ People oriented
✔ Competitive ✔ Cooperative
✔ Pessimistic ✔ Optimistic
✔ Programmatic ✔ Perfectionistic
✔ Self-contained ✔ Expressive
✔ Individualist ✔ Collectivist
✔ Persuasive ✔ Consensual

62
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #6

63
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

64
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER
Chapter 7 7
GENDER, LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL MEDIA

“The real linguistic fact is the full utterance within its context of situation.”
(Bronislaw Malinowski)

Language has contributed

con tributed
Learning Objectives
to women’s lower social status in
At the end of the chapter, students are quite varied ways. Many terms of
expected to: the language that are supposed to
1. illustrate the influence of media on be gender-neutral are not; man, for
gender differences; example, is supposed to serve
2. compare and contrast the male/female
male/female double duty, referring both to
images as shown in media; humanity as a whole and male
3. critic the role stereotyping through human beings. Similarly, he is the
media, and; pronoun used both when we know
4. demonstrate the social changes
that the person being referred to is
brought about by media.
media.
male
the gender of the individual. This is not logical and when
according we doand
to Moore notBruder
know
(1995). Either there should be one pronoun to refer to everybody, or there
should be three pronouns: male, female, and as-yet-undetermined. Feminist
theorists have argued that by
Key Concepts making words like man and he serve
both as gender-specific and
Language has contributed to women’s
gender-neutral terms, the net effect
lower social status in quite
qu ite varied ways.
is to “erase” women from our
The word ‘gender’,
‘gender ’, originally a conversational landscape. The
grammatical term, has come to refer to the actual psychology of human beings
social roles and behavior of individuals is such that when we hear he, we
arising from their classification as think “male,” even if that was not
biologically male
male or female. the speaker’s intention
The first act of genderization is the giving (Philosophy: The power of Ideas).
of names.
In her best-selling book,
Gender roles are perceptually merged with
You Just Don’t Understand, Deborah
biological sex and
and unless one stops to think
think
Tannen identifies a number of
about the matter this seems to be perfectly
natural.
ways men and women
communicate differently. Here’s a
The standard of any language is the one brief look at some of those
with greatest prestige.
prestige. It is chosen for differences:
official usage, taught in schools, used in
universities and is the universal medium for
writing.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Chambers (1995: 102) says that “language is a tool for social interaction
inter action
and it should not be surprising to learn that it can be affecte
affected
d by different social
contexts.”In virtually, all sociolinguistic studies that include a sample of males
and females, there is evidence for this conclusion about their linguistic
behavior, women use fewer stigmatized and non-standard variants than do

men of the same social group in the same circumst

circumstances.
ances.
Differences in
Men Women
Communication
Conversations are Conversations are
negotiations in which negotiations for closeness in
people try to achieve and which people try to seek
seek and
Independence maintain the upper hand. give confirmation and
vs. Life is a contest, a support, and try to reach
Intimacy struggle to preserve consensus. Life is a
independence and avoid community, a struggle to
failure. preserve intimacy and avoid
isolation.
Talk is primarily
primarily a means The language of
to preserve conversation is primarily a
independence. This is language or rapport: a way
done by exhibiting of establishing connection
Report talk knowledge and skill, and and negotiating
vs. by holding center stage relationships. Emphasis is
Rapport talk through verbal placed on displaying
performance such as similarities and matching
storytelling, joking, or experiences.
imparting information.

Conflict is the necessary Conflict is a threat to

means by which statu
statuss is connection, to be avoided at
Contest
negotiated, so it is to be all costs. Therefore, disputes
vs.
accepted and may even are preferably settled
Community
be sought, embraced and without direct
enjoyed. confrontation.
Toben and Joanne Heim. Men and Women. The Navigators. 2001.

Tannen (1994) demonstrated the gender difference in language use.

She introduced the following areas to consider for analysis and they are:
physical orientation, status and connection, directness and indirectness
indirectness,, public
and private talk, ritual opposition, and conversation style. The table bellows
presents the differences:

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Gender Differences in
Male Female
Language Use
Avoid eye contact
contact Physical Orientation
Orientation Use eye contact
Talk for status
status Status
Status and Connection Talk for solida
solidarity
rity
From decision to Directness and From discussion to
discussion Indirectness decision
Talkative in public, Public and Private Talk
Talkative Quiet in public,
quiet in private talkativee in private
talkativ
Fight for fun Ritual Opposition May fight, but not for
fun
“Trouble talk” avoided;
avoided; Conversational Style “Trouble talk” used to
would put status
status at risk create rapport

Moreover, there are gender differences as well in style and vocabulary.

Males and females also differ in their use of nonverbal and verbal language in
conversation. First, women face their conversation partner while men are
distant. Second, women introduce new topics more frequently than men on
the other hand women sustain a topic infrequently (36%) and men (96%).
Third, women openly talk about relationships and feelings, contrary, men
favour talking about impersonal topics.

Chambers (1995: 102) says that “language is a tool for social interaction
inter action
and it should not be surprising to learn that it can be affecte
affected
d by different social
contexts.”In virtually, all sociolinguistic
sociolin guistic studies that include a sample of males
and females, there is evidence for this conclusion about their linguistic
behavior, women use fewer stigmatized and non-standard variants than do
men of the same social group in the same circumst
circumstances.
ances.

Over the years, this conclusion has been stated in numerous ways.
Wolfram (1969
(1969:: 76) says that “females show a greater sensitivity to socially
evaluative linguistic features than do males.” Labov (1972: 243) says, “In
careful speech, women use fewer stigmatized forms than men, and are more
sensitive than men to the prestige pattern.” Wolfram and Fasold (1974: 93)
say, “Females show more awareness of prestige norms in both their actual
speech and their attitudes toward speech.” Romaine (1978: 156), explaining
the preference by women for a different variant from their men in her study,
concludes: “The females…are clearly more concerned within the…social
structure.” Elsewhere, she summarizes the sociolinguistic results as follows
(1984: 113): “women consistently produce
produce forms which are nearer to the
prestige norm more frequently than men,” and she reports, furthermore,
evidence for gender differentiation in choosing linguistic variants as early as
six years old. Trudgill (1983: 161) says that “women, allowing for oth er

67
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

variables such
such as age, education and ssocial
ocial class, produce an
an average linguistic
form which more closely approach those of the standard language or have
higher prestige than those produced by men.” Labov (1990: 205) states it this
way: “In stable ssociol
ociolinguistic
inguistic stratification,
stratification, men use higher frequency of non-
standard forms than women.” Cameron and Coates (1988: 13) say that
“women on average
that “in modern devate
urban less from
societies the prestige
it is typically truestandard
standar d than
for every men,”
social and add
class.”

During the last twenty-five years, the feminist movement in America

has stirred up its share of linguistic controversy. Many people in the movement
have made the claim – and rightfully so – that our language
l anguage prejudices its users
against women by perpetuating cultural assumptions that make male the norm
female the deviation. Casey Miller and Kate Swift, authors of Words and Women
and The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing, are pioneers in the movement to rid the
language of sexist prejudice.
prejudi ce. Their essay “One Small Step for Genkind,” is a
classic analysis of the various ways the English Language denigrates and
oppresses women.

Taking the opposing view is former Vice

Vice-President
-President Spiro T. Agnew,
who sees non o repression of women reflected in the language. As suggested by
the title of the piece, “English Anyone?” Agnew argues that degenderized
English is both foolish and awkward. Instead of gender-equalit
gender -equality,
y, he claims, all
that feminists accomplish is a setback in fluency.

While Jack Rosenthal in “Gender Bender,” agrees that degenderizing

English is a good thing, it may only be scratching the surface. He said that if
we are going to rid English of sexual bias against women we will first have to
alter some basic values in our culture – values he calls “hidden gender” as they
lie deep within the language.

Language and gender

The word ‘gender,’ originally a grammatical

grammatical term, has come to refer ttoo
the social roles and behavior of individuals arising from their classification
classification as
biologically male or female. This is a huge complex embracing virtually all
aspects of social behavior of which language is only one. In the past three
decades or so intensive research has been carried out into the relationship of
language and gender, largely by female scholars who have felt drawn to the
topic because of the obvious discrimination against women which has taken
place in the past and which is still to be observed today.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Within linguistics the initial impulse was the work of the American
linguist Robin Lakoff who in the early 1970s focused her attention
attention on certain
themes with the language and gender complex above those which she rightly
felt were in need of rectifying. Her work stimulated other scholars to engage
in this study and soon language and gender was a burgeoning research area in
universities across the western world.
It is in the nature of language and gender studies that they are
concerned with contrasting language as use by men and by women. Various
opinions emerged on this relationship with two gaining particular focus. One
is the difference approach which established
established that male and female language is
dissimilar without attributing this to the nature of the social relationship
between men and women. The other is the dominance approach which saw
language use by females and males as reflecting established relationship of
social control of the latter over the former. With the maturation of research
on language and gender the simple ‘difference – dominance’ dichotomy was
increasingly regarded as unsatisfactory and insufficient
in sufficiently
ly nuanced.

Before beginning a discussion of language and gender it is important

to stress that statements made in this context are taken to apply to groups of
people, in this case men and women. They are generalizations whose
justification, if this holds, derives from their applicability to majorities with
groups. As any field of inquiry, statements made about groups are not taken
to apply to each member – that would be to use cliches. The personality of the
individual can always lead her or him not to conform to a pattern claimed for
her or his group. For example, to maintain that men have a competitive style
of social behavior in western countries is a generalization which virtually
everyone would agree on.

The opening sentence to to this section contains the phrase

ph rase ‘biologically
male or female’. In a book of this nature it is not possible to discuss the issues
around possible transitions between the unambiguously female and the
unambiguously male in the physiological sense.

Lastly, it should be stressed that all statements in this section are

intended to be non-evaluative. That the social discrimination of women,
including its linguistic dimension, is to be deplored is taken as given.

Growing into a gender role

It is assumed by all researchers on language and gender that men and

women use language differently. This is taken to result from what is called

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

socialization, the growing into a society from early childhood onwards. Gender
roles are presented to infants and lead them along paths full of preconceived
opinions.

The first act of genderization is the giving of names. Females and males
are usually
Hilary; recognizable
Chris, by theirforms),
Pat (abbreviated first names although
can apply a fewgenders.
to both English Infants
names, e.g.
are
then treated as one gender or the other, though occasionally parents resist the
allocation of gender to children if this does not match what they were wishing
for. So much seems fairly innocuous but the reinforcement of gender
allocation can take on subtle forms based on whether children comply to the
role they are assigned. Parental approval or disapproval is often expressed
according to how one conforms to one’s gender role: good boy, good girl; b bad
ad
boy, bad girl are common assessments made of children. While many parents
use such labels without thinking it may well show how much they in turn
internalized notions of gender roles during their own youth, i.e. in their own
formative period.

Attributes of the two genders are convey

conveyed
ed early on to children. T
There
here
are essential differences between boys and girls, not just in external physiology,
but in mental makeup. Reason is for boys while emotions are for girls. Crying
becomes increasingly unacceptable for boys who are supposed to come to
terms with unpleasant situations in a rational manner. Girls are allowed
displays of emotions which is not a male thing, only in extreme circumstances
which are regarded as exceptional. Girls ccan
an show (or feign) fear, for exa
example
mple
when they classify
classify films as ‘spooky and scary’. Boys learn early on to hide fear
and anxiety.

There are linguistic manifestations

manifestations of these slots for the genders.
Diminutive formations are commonly used for girls, which stresses their lack
of power and conversely their need for protection. For instance, there is girl
and girlie but no boy and boyie. Some labels seem to imply that one gender is
particularly well adapted
adapted to the expected role, e.g. the word lad is an approving
term which refers to a boy who is clearly boyish in character.

Different ways of passing their time are related to children at an early

stage. Think of the toys given to children to play with: guns for boys, dolls for
girls. A competitive, public role is suggested for boys and a more domestic,
docile role is assumed for girls. Already in early childhood there is an
asymmetry which increasingly widens into many areas of social behavior.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

What happens
happens to tthose
hose individua
individuals
ls who d
do
o not conform to the gender
role which is expected of them? Boys are taunted for being sissy and girls can
be referred to as tomboyish. There would seem to be another asymmetry here,
though this time of a different kind. In western societies the taint of effeminate
behavior is more serious than that of boyish behavior for girls. One
explanation for this is
for general behavior that female
while male patterns
patternsare unmarked,
a special they
subset. are the yardstick
Deviation from the
general norm is therefore less tolerated than that within a subset.

There is a separation of boys and girls which is often found in

childhood, at least in terms of games and outdoor activities (though in the
home one cannot avoid contact with opposite sex siblings). This situation
changes quite dramatically just before puberty when boys and girls enter what
has been called ‘the heterosexu
heterosexual
al market’. Boys and girls engage in pairing off,
they test their value for the opposite and the feedback they receive in this
activity plays a crucial in their later self-image as adults. Western societies
assume adolescents partake in this behavior and those who do not – for
whatever reasons – are marginalized by their peers. For adolescents
heterosexual desirability
desirability is a strong indication of the individual’s value, even if
that individual is not especially interested in this market. Peer pressure is
enormous among adolescents and those who do not conform to it, such as
homosexuals, suffer
suffer stigma and exclusion which can mark them for life.

Adolescence is about conformity. To adults this may seem strange at

first, after all adolescents continually criticize their parents for their social
conformity. Nonetheless, adolescents show the most extreme forms of group
conformity themselves, probably because their personalities are not yet firmly
established and individuals are not prepared to risk rejection by the group.
Those instances of individuals who appear to stand out among their peers
usually embody established roles to a heightened extent, for instance in sports,
spo rts,
dress or as active heterosexual couples in schools.

In industrialized nations, the commercial sector is a powerful factor in

maintaining perceived notions of mainstream behavior. It gears its products
towards the statistical majority in society and thus plays a pivotal role in
reinforcing gender roles. A good illustration for the mainstream character of
the commercial sector is provided by clothing. Certain patterns and colors are
promoted as typical of one or other gender, flowers and frills are definitely for
girls as are the colors orange, pink and lilac (in ascending order).
o rder).

71
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Fashions and styles come and go, exaggerated shoulder pads in

womens’ blazers and blouses were common in the 1980s but not anymore.
Low cut waistlines are now (early 2000s) common in slacks for women.

The naming of object

objectss is also closely
closely linked to gender distinctions. For
clothes one
western finds not
countries) butjust skirtsfor
blouses andfemales
dressesand
(which only
shirts forapply
men to womenthe
although in
items of clothing are essentially similar.

Gender roles in adulthood

By and large gender roles are kept throughout one’s life. It is true that
some people put their assumed role aside in later life, frequently as a result of
questioning the basis for such roles. But such major re-orientations
re -orientations in life are
not the rule. Instead most people continue along the path which was set for
them in childhood and adolescence. There are advantages to this. The gender
roles supplied by society allow those who conform them to enjoy the ben benefits.
efits.
Men can assert themselves in public and occupy good jobs and women can
accept the support and economic backing from men which goes with a
domestic role. Such descriptions are close to stereotypes but they are accurate
for large sections of western societies and many others as well, if they were
not, these societies would be organized differently. The problems arise with
the discriminations which are endemic to such a socio-economic
socio -economic system
system.. The
very public
p ublic p
presence
resence of males can be interpreted
in terpreted as hegemony over women.
Even if not all women wish to assume such public roles, the opportunity
should be open to them. The extent to which we carry assumptions about what
gender should occupy what positions in society can be seen in the unmarked
or default use of many titles. Surgeons are taken to be male unless specified
otherwise. Nurses are females unless one speaks of male nurses. Now while
the work of neither of these individuals is inherently of greater value that that
of the other, the social prestige of the surgeon is far greater.

Traditionally, the justification

justification for different
different employment patterns along
gender lines appealed to the larger physique of men and their greater strength
vis a vis women. These physiological differences were often compared to those
in the animal world. It is true that in the mammal world, the males of species
are generally stronger, one just needs to look at a bull or a boar to see that. But
division of labor according to gender would only make sense in manual jobs,
but even there the ever increasing automation of labor has meant that physical
strength is becoming less and less of a consideration. The employment
opportunities of women versus men have to do with power in society.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Gender and power

If gender consists of roles allocated to males and females and

determined by society then it is not a given, at least very much less than one’s
biological sex is a given. Scholars nowadays refer to gender as constructed, it
is something which is performed
p erformed by individuals who adopt categories of beliefs
and behavior which are associated in a given society with their biological sex.

Gender roles are perceptually merged with biological sex and unless
one stops to think about the matter this seems to be perfectly natural. The
gender roles of males and those of females have been established for centuries
in societies across the world. Such roles have the power of the familiar and the
conventional. For example, in various religions, it seem ‘natural’ that men
should occupy the most senior positions. In governments and public
institutions it again
again seems ‘natural’ than men should lead. For instance, all 43
presidents of the United States have been male (and white for that matter).
How often does one hear pseudo-arguments
pseudo- arguments like ‘that’s the way it has always
been’ when someone questions the legitimacy
legitimacy of male hegemony.

Women who rightly insist on equa

equall rights as men
men are often regarde
regarded
d as
‘ungrateful’, as betraying their partners, parents, society or whatever, as
rejecting male protection and kindness. The assumption here is that if the
people in power are nice to you, you are supposed to be thankful.

Language used by women

Early researchers into language and gender, above all Robin Lakoff, stressed
the lack of power which the kind of language women use seems to embody.

Various features
powerlessness. were
These listed inwhich
are listed were intended
the following table. to document this

Putative features of women’s language

Powerless, non-confrontational language
indirect statements
It would save a lot of money if we bought a smaller car.
tag questions
It’s not that much to ask, is it?
use of hedges,
h edges, alternatives
It’s not really that difficult. Well, why not?
We could go for a drive or a walk this afternoon.
high rising intonation at end of sentence

73
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

We could go away for the weekend.

Emotional,
Emotional, ‘genteel’ language
use of augmentatives
I’m /delighted you’re going to help. They’re /so kind!
use of euphemisms
Peter’s gone to wash his hands.
It is important to note that, if at all, such features indicate vague
tendencies in the language of women. Individuals may or may not show these
features. Furthermore, it would be wrong to maintain that those who do
should adopt a more assertive style in order to overcome social powerlessness.
Offers of remedial instruction to lend more authority to the language of
individual women miss the point that it is the general position of women which
needs to be changed and not the speech of single persons.

Gender and standard

The standard of any language is the one with greatest prestige. It is

chosen for official usage, taught in schools, used in universities and is the
universal medium for writing.

An observation
observation made by res
researchers
earchers on gender-specific
gender-specific language usage
is that women tend to use more standard language than men. Not everyone
agrees with this, but the evidence for it is very powerful and many
investigations have shown this objectively. Those who disagree with this
should remember that the observation is not a criticism of female linguistic
behaviour. At any rate the key question is, why do women use more standard
forms of language? An explanation which appeals to a power differential
between men and women would seem to give an acceptable answer. If one
group has been traditionally discriminated against, then assuming the accent
of prestige will afford some power by association.
association.

There is another reason why women, certainly in English-speaking

countries like the United Kingdom, tend to use more standard forms of
language. There is, or at least was, an association of dialect with working-class
male culture in which women, again at least previously, did not participate
directly. Another aspect of this complex concerns the use of ‘strong language’,
e.g. curses and swear words, like ‘four-
‘four-letter words’. Using such language has
been part of the ‘rough and tough’ male image in many western countries.
Women were supposed to be more ‘genteel’, strong strong language was regarded as
not ‘ladylike’.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Gender-neutral language

Even a cursory glance at English shows that it, like other western
languages, are inherently sexist, i.e. embody discrimination in their structure
and/or vocabulary. This may be by assuming that the default case is always
male as in The linguist must gather data and be careful that he organizes it
properly. One could, when making a generic reference to the linguist
lin guist or reader,
assume that the individual is female and use ‘she’ as pronoun. It is perfectly
understandable for female authors to do this. However, it may appear slightly
ingratiating for male authors to do so. One could vary the pronominal
references at will, but this may leave the reader wondering why ‘she’ is used in
one instance and ‘he’ in the next.

Apart from the issue of generic usage, language may be sexist in the
labels sometimes used for women. Animal comparisons are common in
metaphoric usage, e.g. strong as an ox, meek as a lamb, sly as a fox. But many
of these are also used derisively for women, e.g. stupid cow, silly duck, awful
bitch.

A further type of sexism is found in expressions which stress women

as objects of sexual desire, e.g. chick or peach. Even the fairly innocuous honey
has its origin in the association of women with sweetness. The converse of this
situation is the use of special vocabulary to describe women who, because of
age, are not regarded as sexually desirable and hence viewed negatively by men,
consider such expressions as old hag. Other abusive labels for women with a
sexual origin are also found, e.g. cunt. Such terms stem from derisory male
attitudes to women.

De-sexification of language
There have
have been many
many atattempts
tempts to desexify
desexify llanguage,
anguage, that is tto
o remove
inherently sexist structures. One obvious means is just not to use such
language, as in the case of abusive terms like those just mentioned. But there
are many instances where one cannot avoid the issue and speech communities
have reacted in various ways, for example by creating new generic forms.
Humankind for former mankind, chairperson instead of chairman /
chairwoman or indeed chair. However, this type of reduction does not always
work, e.g. one could hardly
hardly call a spokesperson
spokesperson a spoke. The
The use of a differ
different
ent
word to indicate occupation is sometimes
sometimes possible, e.g. police officer for
policeman. In other cases a form has been replaced, e.g. air hostess by flight
attendant.

75
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

The goal of such creations is to arrive at

a t a neutral
n eutral label which can be
used for either gender without highlighting this. There are difficulties where a
lexical replacement is not possible. The word doctor has sometimes been
qualified by an adjective or further noun to indicate the gender of the
individual. Apart from the distinct
distinctly
ly quaint lady doctor, there is female doctor
or woman doctor. There are differences, too, within the anglophone world.
Different strategies can be employed to avoid being overtly sexist in
language use. Instead of using a generic masculine reference of the type the
linguist – he... one can use a plural: linguists – they... English is forgiving in
this respect as it allows the use of plural anaphora with singular antecedents so
that one can have sentences like Anyone interesting in taking part should see
their tutor. Other pronouns like one or you are an another option.
Reformulations
Reformulat ions are often a solution man the position can be re re-formulated
-formulated as
occupy/staff/fill
occupy/staff /fill the position.

Using formally marked feminine forms is decreasing in popularity.

Often one finds actresses referred to as actors (generic for both genders);
poetess is definitely antiquated. However,
How ever, specific feminine
femini ne forms of titles tend
to be retained, for instance,
in stance, The Duchess of Kent, Baroness Thatcher.

In the area of written address English has had considerable

con siderable problems,
for instance, with the forms Mrs. and Miss – stressing the marital status of the
woman, but not of the man – and which are now rightly regarded as
unacceptable. The use of Ms. shows some of the difficulties with attempts to
desexify language: the success depends on whether the new form is accepted
in the society in question. A new form can also backfire which is obviously not
intended by its inventors. However, if official
o fficial guidelines are adamant, as is for
instance the case with Ms. for official correspondence in Britain, then
individual resistance may give way to a general acceptance and the form may
become neutral through constant use. In current British English usage it is also
common to address people (in writing and on formal occasions) by simply
using their firstname and surname, avoiding the issue entirely.

Gender and language change

It was noted above that women tend to use more standard forms of
language. But there is another valid observation which seems paradoxical in
this light: when language change is taking place then women seem to be the
vanguard of such
such change.

76
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

The question of interest here is why women are at the forefront of

ongoing change? One explanation which connects this fact with a greater use
of standard forms of language by women has to do with power. Individuals
with relatively little power compared to others, have a higher sensitivit
sensitivityy to
aspects of social behavior which can give them more power.

Where a language/variety
language/variety is fairly stable and there is a standard, using
this standard confers more power on women speakers by increasing their
relative social status. In a situation where a language/variety is changing,
indeed pushing it somewhat, also confers power on women because the
change is something which has status associated with it, where it is motivated
by dissociation from those conservative speakers
speakers who do not have much social
clout.

77
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Summary

• Sociolinguistics looks at the role which language plays in society, the identity
function it has in communities and how
how attitudes frequently de
determine
termine la
language
nguage
use. Vernacular forms of language are important for the internal cohesion of
social networks.
• Lower middle class speakers figure prominently in language change as they are
at the interface of the working and the middle class and strive upwards.
Dissociation from people further down the social scale is a strong motivating
factor in language
language change.

• Only a subset of variations

v ariations in a language at any one time lead to later change.
Just what variations result in change depends on their status for the sspeakers.
peakers.
This status may be conscious in the case of identification markers or
subconscious, the latter not being any less important than the former for
language change.

• Women tend to use more standard language than men (perhaps due to their
position in western societies). On the other hand they also tend to be at the
forefront of linguistic innovations.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #7

General Instructions:
1. Form a group of 6-8 members.
2. Select a leader-facilitator,
leader-facilitator, a recorder, and a presenter.
3. Brainstorm on the difference between how men and women
communicate at home, in school, and the community they live in.
4. Discuss your group output to the class.

79
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

80
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 8
Chapter 8
GENDER AND POLITICS

“Men and women are created equally different.

Each one is capable and
and incapable of something.”
(FB Salado)

Politics as a real-world
Learning Objectives
phenomenon and political science as
At the end of this chapter, students are an academic discipline are gendered.
expected to: People all over the world find that
the basic conditions of their lives —
1. Apply the Laws on gender their safety, health, education, work,
equality; as well as access to markets, public
2. Give examples of successful men space, and free expression—are
and women in politics;
fundamentally shaped by their
3. Distinguish the leadership styles
st yles
identification as belonging to
according to gender; and particular sex or gender groups.
4. Judge issues on good governance.
Individual bodies may be typed as
male or female, masculine or
feminine, heterosexual or homosexual, transgendered or nongendered in a
dizzying variety of ways across cultures and over time.

However, these social practices of gender often appear natural and

unproblematic, even biological and therefore impossible to change, in the social
contexts in which they occur. But a cursory review of the literature on the
biological basis of sex, taking into account the wide variety of the number and
content of gender categories across social contexts, reveals a world far more (p.
2) complex than this simplistic male–female dichotomy would suggest
(Butler 1990; Dreger 1998; FaFausto-Sterl
usto-Sterling
ing 2000)
2000).. Gender is never just about sex
but varies by race, ethnicity, nation, class, and a variety of other dimensions of
social life.

In the past, women were not allowed to participat

participatee in any activities in
the government. They were only trained to do household chores. Their minds
are conditioned to be contented to stay at home to take care of the family.
Whereas men
men were resp
responsible
onsible to provide the
the financial needs of the fam
family.
ily. It
was very unusual for a woman to lead any group or organization in the
community. The role of women in the political realm was very limited if not
none.

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 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Freedom to vote was not

Key Concepts
enjoyed by Filipino women long
Sex – refers to the basic, biologically before the Spanish Era. It was
given physiological differences between only after the World War II that
males and females women were allowed to cast ttheir
heir
Gender – refers to a culture's social votes
giving when
womena the
lawright
was topassed
vote.
construction of differences between the
sexes But even then, women were
blocked from running any
Gender equality – refers to the principle of positions or hold any office in the
equality between women and men and equal government. All throughout
rights to enjoy conditions in realizing their history, only very few women
full potentials to contribute to, and benefit were able to lead or express their
from, the results of development, with the
sentiments for or against an
State recognizing that all human beings are
free and equal in dignity and rights. institution.

Gender equity – refers to the policies, In this new era, women

instruments, programs and actions that are now less unafraid to express
address the disadvantaged position of what they think and what they
women in society by providing preferential feel. Probably, due to the
treatment and affirmative action.
circumstances
circumsta nces that are happening
in the society that there is now a
need to voice out instead of sulking in the corner and waiting what will happen
next. The women of today have evolve in such a way that they learn to be
strong to stand and fight for what they think is right and just for them to be
treated equally in the society where they live.

Laws on Gender

Women’s strength to air out their rights may perhaps attribute to the
laws enacted recognizing the importance of women in the country. The 1987
Constitution
Constitut ion has first paved a wayw ay for women empowerment. The law clearly
manifested in its Article II Section 14 the role of the women in nation-building
nation-b uilding
which states,
states, “The State recognizes the role of women
wom en in nation -building, and shall ensure
the fundamental equality before the law of women and men.” This provision rrecognizes
ecognizes
the role of women often neglected by the dominant patriarchal system. The
Constitution
Constitut ion as the highest law of the law, seeks to provide
p rovide further avenue for
gender equity.

The Constitution
Constitution has seen to it that tthe
he women as well as tthe
he children

are primarily
based on theguaranteed
context oftheir well-being.
Filipino culture,The role of women
standards in the society
and mindsets. is
Filipino

82
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

women are described to be strong who directly and indirectly run the family
unit, business, government agencies and haciendas. Compared to other parts
in Southern Asia, women in the Philippines enjoyed greater share of legal
equality (Cruz-Calilung, 2014). The general idea of the provision is to ignore
sex where sex is irrelevant factor to determine rights and duties and does not
meant to ignore customs and traditions (Bernas, 1997).
Pursuant to the recognition of the role of women in nation-building,
Republic Act No 7192 or “Women in Development and Nation Building Act”
was passed. Assistance funds shall be set aside to support programs and
activities for women. The National Economic Development Authority
(NEDA) is the responsible agency in ensuring active participation and
involvement of women in any program or project that will be implemented by
the government. This law also assures the equal treatment between men and
women in capacity to act and enter contacts, access to all government and
private sector programs, applying and securing travel documents without the
need of securing consent from the spouses. Further, RA 7192 gives equal
opportunity to women to be a member in any club, committee and
organization. Likewise, admission to military schools are accorded to them.
They are also entitled
entitled to volunta
voluntary
ry PAG-IBIG, GGSIS
SIS and SSS covera
coverage.
ge.

With the des

desire
ire of the State tto
o further
further protect the rights of the women,
in most cases women and minors are victims of sexual harassment, Republic
Act No 7877 or otherwise known as “Anti-Sexual
“Anti -Sexual Harassment Act of 1995”1995”
was enacted. This statute
statute guarantees full respect for hu
human
man right
rightss and upholds
dignity of workers, employees, applicants and students. With the passage of
this law, all forms of sexual-harassment in the employment, education and
training environment are declared unlawful. To further reinforce this law, the
Civil Service Commission issued a Resolution No 94-2854 on May 31, 1994
and Memorandum No 19, S 1994 to afford protection to working women and
ensure equal work opportunity for all, as well as full respect for human rights.

In 2008, “The Magna Carta of Women” or RA No 9710 was

promulgated affirming the role of women in nation building. It recognizes that
the economic, political and sociocultural realities affect women’s current
conditions so there is a need to promote women empowerment, pursue equal
opportunities and
and ensure equa
equall access to resources. There is a need to abolish
abolish
unequal structures and practices that perpetuate discrimination and inequality.
inequality.
Programs, plans, policies, measures and mechanisms should be developed to
address discrimination and inequality
inequality in all factors in the society.

83
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

A way of addressing and eliminating discriminatory policing among

women in several institutions
institutions in accordance with RA No 7192 and RA No
9710 is the Memorandum Circular No 2016-07 passed by the Philippine
Commission on Women. This memorandum clearly sstated tated that m
married
arried
women has an option to use the surname of their husbands, but not a duty.
Several women
legitimate made a complaint
transactions to marriedthat severalusing
women institutions refuse to
their maiden process
name. As
explained by the Supreme Court in one of its landmark cases that a married
woman is not prohibited
prohibited from continuously using her maiden name ssinceince she
does not change her name but only her civil status. This memo further
reinforced Article 370 of the Civil Code of the Philippines which provides that
“A married woman may use: (1) Her maiden first name and surname and add
her husband’s surname, or (2) Her maiden first name and her husband’s
surname, or (3) Her husband’s full name, but prefixing a word indicating that
she is his wife, such as “Mrs.””.

Another means of reinforcing the RA No 7192, was the Executive

Order No 273 by former President Fidel V Ramos which adopted the
“Philippine
“Philippi ne Plan for Gender-Responsive Development, 1995-2025”
1995-2025” simply
referred to as The Plan. All government agencies concerned aside from taking
appropriate a step for the full implementation of the policies and programs for
women, should also institutionalize
institutionalize and iincorporate
ncorporate Gender and Development
(GAD) efforts and concerns in government. Accordingly, pursuant to RA No
9710, the Civil Service Commission promulgated a Resolution No 1000432
setting guidelines
guidelin es on how to avail the special leave benefits for Women. ThisThi s
resolution is focused on giving special leave benefits to women who have
undergone surgery caused by gynecological disorders regardless of age and civil
status. Minor surgical procedure will have a leave of a maximum two weeks.
Whereas, a minimum of three weeks and maximum of two months shall be
availed if the surgical procedure is major. It is worthy to note that law does not
look into civil status, whether the woman is married or not, she can avail of
such leave within the conditions set forth by the Commission.

Moreover, An Act known as the “Anti-Violence

“Anti -Violence Against Women and
Their Children
Children Act of 2004 (RA N Noo 9262
9262)) wa
wass promulgated.
promulgated. This statut
statutee again
expressed the State’s principle of valuing the dignity of women and children
and guarantying full respect for human rights. The State has to protect the
family and its members especially the women and children from violence and
threats to their personal safety and security. This law, compared to other laws
passed about women and children, is giving more teeth to the rights ofo f women
and children in protecting the women and children against all forms of abuse
(physical, sexual, psychological and economic abuses). An Inter-Agency

84
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Council on Violence Against Women and their Children is formed to

formulate programs and projects to eliminate violence of any form against
women. To facilitate
facilitate faster the reports of complaint by women and children
against abuses, a certain area in every police precinct is designated solely for
the purpose. It is wort
worthy
hy to note that in the new Anti-Rape
Anti-Rape Law, married
womenintercourse
sexual can file a rape
whencase
theyagainst
do nottheir
wantspouses if theyrape
to. Though are isforced
now atocrime
have
against the Republic of the Philippines, a rape case can be dismissed anytime
of the wife opt to forgive her husband. This is known as the Condonation
Doctrine, wherein the crime is considered to be forgiven if the offended party
has expressedly forgiven the perpetrator of the felony. This most of the apply
on family conflicts such as marital rape, adultery, concubinage, and bigamy.

Furthermore, to keep up with the principles of gender equality,

protection of mothers and children, RA 10354 was enacted and enforced. This
is known as “The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health
He alth Act of
2012”. This law, in accordance to Section 12 Article 2 and Section 14 Article
13 of the Philippine Constitution, and Family Code of the Philippines
recognizes the rights of all to equality and nondiscrimination and fully respect
the right to health which includes reproductive health in accordance to with
one’s own religious convictions, ethics, cultural beliefs and the demands of
responsible parenthood. A guarantee to universal access to medically safe,
non-abortifacient, effective, legal, affordable, and quality reproductive health
care services was given prioritizing the needs of women, children and other
underprivileged sectors. Preferential attention must be given to human
resource since it is one of the principal assets of the country. Thus, maternal
and child health, the health of the unborn, safe delivery and birth of healthy
children should be ensured primarily. According to De Leon (2005), though
men cannot be considered superior to women as a general proposition, it
cannot be denied that by reason of the fragile physical structure and maternal
functions of the women, special concern to working women is expressly
mandated in the Constitution.
Constitution.

Leadership in Government

From the historical viewpoint, only few women run for political
positions. Majority of those who aimed to hold public office are men. Just
looking into the Philippine realm, only two women became head of the state
in the persons of late Corazon C Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the
rest are men presidents. Male dominance leadership in government is not only

observed in the national level but also happening

h appening the local units.

85
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Even though there are already laws that safeguard the welfare and
rights of women to equality and equity, only few attempted to express their
rights and exercises their freedom. This may be because of the customs and
traditions that are discriminatory and still practice by most Filipinos around
the country. Gender imbalances still persist despite breakthroughs to advance
the rights women. Much things are to be done before society will break down
all forms of gender barriers and true gender equality as envisioned in the
supreme law of the land (Cayetano, P, 2012).

Further, the norms of gender have traditionally prescribed distinct

roles in society for two sexes. Men are then primarily given the responsibility
for affairs in the public sphere (politics and economic) whereas men are
assigned in the central position in the private sphere, the home and family.
Politics is still largely viewed as “man’s world” due to lack of progress in the
gendered conditions of women’s access, the experiences and portrayals of
female politicians (Jalalzai and Krook, 2010).

Men and women may have different leadership styles. Women may
tend to be more cooperative and participatory compared to men who are
commanding and controlling. They even have different way in motivating their
people. The former helps in finding self-work and satisfaction among their
subordinates, while the latter is either providing incentives or penalties. Men
tend to brand themselves by letting others know about their successes and
strengths while women are still learning how to brand themselves (Garfinkle,
2016).

In addition, evidences show that females possess more

transformational
transforma tional and transact
transactional
ional an
andd participative leadership style than their
male counterparts. Women lead roles are more benevolent, compassionate,
ethical and universalistic spreading the public good. Accordingly, Chaluvadi
(2015) said that women leaders act more on behalf of the public
publi c good, but the
fervor of this generalization would depend one’s political stance.

Surely, there are differences between the male and female leadership.
Women are more on delegating and coaching while men ae more inclined
towards directing and supporting. However, study shows that there is no
difference in the flexibility and efficiency between sexes ((Kuchynková,
Kuchynková, 2017
2017).
).
Differences disappear in actual scenarios. Mostly conclude that women do not
behave differently from men. Both sexes who are experienced are more likely
have the same in drive, skills, temperament and competitiveness. It is worth
considering that even if both men and women are capable of leading a country,
the early socialization and social practice may impede females from becoming
b ecoming

86
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

leaders. Social practice is structured in relation to gender

gen der since it replicated the
reproductive division of people into male and female, they are said to be
"gendered." Thus, gender becomes a property of institutions and the human
and historical processes that create them. It becomes a characteristic of not
individual people but collectivities (Encyclopedia of Business, 2017).

As what Radu and et et.. al.

al. (20
(2017)
17) ssaid,
aid, it cannot be concluded that men’s
leadership skills are more powerful and important compared women’s women’ s or vice
versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should
capitalize on them. Business and cultural changes have also shown that, in
order to benefit from sustainable development, organizations need a balance
in terms of masculinity and femininity, and this can be achieved through a
proper understanding of these concepts. Looking at the current leadership
styles and the fact that they are very rarely based on traditional abilities, instead
being characterized by innovation skills, flexibility, intuition, and a people-
oriented approach, a new approach from the one of a one-gender leadership
style (masculine or feminine) certainly needs to be replaced with a vision of
both genders complementing each other.

87
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

88
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #8

General Instructions: Choose an activity that typically done by males and let
the females do the part. The same with the males acting the role of the females.

89
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

90
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #8.1
#8.1

General Instructions: Select any political issues on gender equality.

Determine if there was any discrimination that exist. Make a one-page
reflection paper.

Reflection:

91
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

92
 GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #8.2
#8.2
General Instructions: Case Analysis on Trump-Clinton case. Identify
factors that influence the voting behavior of the electors. Critic the
individual’s choice on the candidat
candidate.
e.

93
 93

GENDER AND SOCIETY

94

GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER
Chapter 9
9
GENDER AND VIOLENCE

“The source of all oppression is the

th e belief that one is better than the other.”
(JE Patrimonio)

Learning Objectives In her essay entitled

“The Rape Culture”, Diane
At the end of this
t his chapter, students are expected Herman discuss what it means
to: to be a woman in a violent
1. explain the legal definition of sexual
word. “Every women knows the
harassment based on RA 7877; fear of being alone at home late at
2. organize phases and effects of incest; night or the terror that strikes her
3. illustrate the signs and symptoms of when she receives an obscene phone
abuse; call. She knows also of the “mini -
4. classify the types of abuse; rapes”- the pinch in the crowded bus,
5. describe the forms of violence against the wolf whistle from a passing car,
women; the stare of a man looking at her bust
6. distinguish violence throughout life
during a conversation.” As
cycle;
7. discuss RA 9262;
discussed, women were
8. programmed by society to fear
tackle about gender violence and issues,
and; violence in all of its form since
9. they are the most obvious
translate policy implications on gender
issues. victim of it. Women have been
accustomed to live a limited life
due to the fear of rape, domestic violence, and sexual discrimination.

Gender-based violence
violence tramples human
human dignity. It hurts and
and hinders
human development.
development. This act violates hu
human
man rights.

Gender-based violence is enacted under many different

manifestations, from its most widespread form, intimate partner
violence, to acts of violence carried out in online spaces. These
different forms are not mutually exclusive and multiple incidences of
violence can be happening at once and reinforcing reinforcing each other.
Inequalities experienced by a person related to their race, (dis)ability,
age, social class, religion, sexuality can also drive acts of violence. This
means that while women face violence and discrimination based on
gender, some women experience multiple and interlocking forms of

violence.
 95

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Any act that is committed

Key Concepts against a person’s will based on gender
norms and unequal power relationships
Violence is defined by the World Health
is gender-based violence. This stems
Organization as "the intentional use of
physical force or power, threatened or
from women’s subordinate status in
actual, against oneself, another person, society. The act may take the form of
or against a group or communi
community, ty, which physical, emotional, psychological,
either results in or has a high likelihood sexual of may be a denial of resources
of resulting in injury, death, or access to services.
psychological harm, maldevel
maldevelopment,
opment,
or deprivation", although the group The UN Declarati
Declaration
on on the
acknowledges that the inclusion of "the Elimination of Violence against
use of power" in its definition expands Women (DEVAW) adopted by tthe he UN
on the conventional understanding of the General Assembly in 1993
word.
encompasses all forms of gender-based
gen der-based
violence against women, no matter in
which context or setting
setting they occur:
occur:

• in the family (such as battery, marital rape; sexual abuse of female children;
dowry-related violence; ; female genital mutilation/cutting and other traditional
practices harmful to women);

• in the general community (such as rape, sexual harassment and intimidation

at work, in school and elsewhere; trafficking in women; and forced prostitution),
and

• violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs (Article 2).

A report from the World Health Organization in 2001 indicated

violence in women’s lives as a major cause of depression, anxiety and stress
stress--
related syndromes, dependence on psychotropic medications and substance
use and suicide.

The enduring effect of violence in lives of victims can last a lifetime

thus affecting how they perform as members of a community.

Everywhere, there have always been a difference between the function

of men and women in terms of economic opportunities, rights, freedom and
power over decision –making. Discrimination against women and childrchildren
en
has always been prevalent.
96

GENDER AND SOCIETY

The success and health

health of a cert
certain
ain society is strongly ind
indicated
icated by the
the
way the society treats its women. Thus, gender equality is being pushed
forward because it is the right thing to do not just for the environment and the
community but most especially for these individuals. Moreover, when women
are empowered
empowered they prove to be very good contributors to a society’s
development in terms of health and productivit
productivity.
y.
“Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a
“Equality
condition for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamenta
fundamentall prerequisite
for equality, development and peace. A transformed partnership based on
equality between women and men is a condition for people-centred sustainable
development. A sustained and long-term commitment is essential, so that
women and men can work together for themselves, for their children and for
society to meet the challenges of the twenty-first
twenty-first century.” (Beijing Platform
of Action, 1995)

Different forms of Gender based Violence

Physical violence - Any act which causes physical harm as a result of unlawful
physical force. Physical violence can take the form of, among others, serious
and minor assault, deprivation of liberty and manslaughter.

Sexual violence - Any sexual act performed on an individual without their

consent. Sexual violence can take the form of rape or sexual assault.
assault.

Psychological violence - Any act which causes psychological harm to an

individual. Psychological violence can take the form of, for example, coercion,
defamation, verbal insult or harassment.

Economic violence - Any act or behaviour which causes economic harm to an

individual. Economic violence can take the form of, for example, property
damage, restricting access to financial resources, education or the labour
market, or not complying with economic responsibilit
responsibilities,
ies, such as alimony.
 97

GENDER AND SOCIETY

98

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #9
#9
 99

GENDER AND SOCIETY

100

GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER
Chapter 1010
GENDER ISSUES IN THE PHILIPPINES

“to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human
person, in the equal rights
rights of men and women and of natio
nations
ns large and small.”

An Overview of the Gender

Learning Objectives
Situation in the Philippines
At the end of this chapter, students will
learn: Carlos Antonio Q.
Anonuevo (2000) on his Overview
1. the sharp contradictions of the gender
situation in the Philippines;
of the Gender Situation in the
2. the changes of gender situations in terms Philippines stated factual evidences
of history of colonialism and socio- on the status of gender in the
cultural traditions; Philippines. The gender situation
3. the gender equality issues at the in the Philippines is characterized
forefront of national discourse, and; by sharp contradictions. It
4. the labor force sector is undergoing its graphically showcases samples of
overhauling.
women’s advancement in politics,
academic and professional
excellence, and even legislation. But this is contrasted by images of prostituted
women, battered wives, economically disadvantaged
disadvantaged women and exploited
migrant workers.

The socio-cultural
socio-cultural traditions are clashing with the MTV and
cyberspace generation. The long history of colonialism has embedded a
patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The conception of women as full-time
homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence against them is private, as
reserve labor force, and as sexual objects is now being eroded by modern
women asserting themselves in many aspects of life. But on the other hhand,
and,
some are either marginalized, discriminated, or even exploited by the harsh
realities of global economy and consumerism.

Both the changes and the inertia of traditions are the backdrop of a
very active
active and dynamic wome
women’s
n’s movement
movement.. The Philippines
Philippines is a main player
in the international women’s arena and this is anchored
anchored on a very vibrant local
women’s movement. Numerous organizations and NGOs exist for the cause
of gender equality and other related women issues.
 101

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts This puts the gender

equality issues at the forefront of
The gender situation in the Philippines is national discourse and precludes
characterized
characterized by sharp contradictions. further downslide of women
status in the modern Philippine
The socio-cultural traditions are clashing
with the MTV and cyberspace
c yberspace generation. society. Indeed, there are many
handles for the changes to
This puts the gender equality issues at the happen. These legal and policy
forefront of national discourse and gains resulted from the strong
precludes further downslide
downslide of women status voice of women that started
in the modern Philippine society. even during the anti-dictatorship
struggle that culminated with the
The 1987 Constitution states two prominent ascension of Corazon Aquino as
provisions..
provisions
the first woman president of the
The labor force statistics show also a mixed
country.
picture.

The 1987 Constitution states two prominent provisions. The first in

the Declaration of Principles Article II Section 14 which asserted that "The
State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the
fundamental equality before the law of women and men." Additionally, the
Article XIII-Labor: Section 14 provided
provided that "The state
state shall protect working
women by providing safe and healthful working conditions taking into account
their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance
their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the
nation".

Following from constitutional provisions and the subsequent efforts

to broaden its principles, numerous legislat
legislation
ion was enacted that relates to the
various aspects
aspects of women and gender conc
concerns,
erns, the list includes:

Gender and Development Law (5% of government agencies' budget is

for gender concerns) Party-List Law (women as a particular sector for
representation in the legislature through party-list elections) Anti-Sexual
Harassment Law (defining SH and providing mechanisms) Anti-Rape Law
(elevation
(elevation of rape as crime against person)

Barangay Day Care Center Law (day care center for every village)
Women in Nation-Building
Nation-Building Law (allocat
(allocation
ion of budget for women from
development funds from foreign governments and multilateral institutions)
Anti Mail-Order-Bride Law (making
(making the practice unlawful) Repatriation Law
102

GENDER AND SOCIETY

(repatriation of Filipinas who lost citizenship by marriage in case of need)

Non-Discrimination
Non-Discriminat ion Law in Labor Code (women protection in hiring and pay)
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (equal rights for women to be recipients
of land) Military T
Training
raining equality (women ca
can
n enter the milit
military
ary and police
schools and providing facilities for them)

While the legal framework is there, the actual situation mirrors the
deep gender divide. In the aspect of women in politics, the notable success of
several women is overshadowed by the actual ground level statistics. The lady
Vice-President is up to now a shoo-in in tthe
he next presidential elections in 2004.

But the big picture shows that of all the elective positions occupied
through the 1998 elections, only 15% are women.

In the two-chamber Congress, the Senate (Upper House) has 17.4%

women membership (4 out o off 23 seats) which the House of Representatives
(Lower House) has 12.4% (27 out of 217 seats). The first party-list elections in
1998--wherein sectoral groups like women competed to get a maximum of 3
seats per party in the House of Representatives--resu
Representatives--resulted
lted in the winning of one
(1) seat for a single women's party.
p arty. Five (5) other women's party did not make
the minimum votes required.

At the local government level, women Provincial Governors constitute

constitute
17% while Vice Governors are at 11.5% level. Among the City and Town
Mayors, 14.5% of them are women while the ranks of the Vice-Mayors are at
low of 10.8%.

The labor force statistics

statistics show also a mixed picture. Since tthere
here was a
notable feminization of the workforce in the past years, July 2000 figures
showed that there are 1.942 million unemployed women while there are 2.631
million unemployed men. However, more women are taken in for labor
flexibility arrangements especially
especially in the big services sector like in retail trade.
This leaves them
them exposed to employment insecurity and unfair
unfair compensation
schemes.

Women still account

account for 53% of the unpaid famil
familyy workers while they
constitute only 37.7% of the wage and salary earners. Though this shows that
the regular income possibilities for women are still limited, the average
household annual income of female-headed families is higher. The situation
also pushes them to seek employment overseas. Increasing numbers of
domestic helpers and entertainers are also being deployed both legally and
illegally.
 103

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Within organizations, the gender balance is under overhaul. Trade

union leadership is still male-dominated but women committees and
affirmative actions have changed the complexion of decision-making. The
public-sector unions have made great inroads as four (4) of the major
federations are under the strong leadership of women.

However, the social fabric remains tainted by arrogance of

o f male power.
Police statistics remains indicative of the traditional ways of how women are
seen in the social and family context. In 1998, 6,518 cases of violence against
women were reported with rape accounting for 1,054 cases and physical
injuries at a high of 2,633 cases. Last year, the former was pegged at 13.79%
and the latter reached 35.17% of the cases reported.

In response to problems that continue to face the Filipina, numerous

civil society groups were organized, and pioneering projects were initiated.
initiated. The
vocal women’s
women’s movement was instrumental in the enactment of the laws that
seek to protect women and broaden their role in the society. Sub-sectoral
groupings of women guaranteed the articulation of specific interests and
agendas while issue-based networks and coalitions advocated and lobbied to
policy-makers and legislators. The campaign for the sexual harassment and the
anti-rape laws saw the synergy of the different organizational forms within the
women’s movement. Their current engagement deals with the law that deals deals
with domestic violence,
violence, abortion and d
divorce.
ivorce.

Such advocacy work is also complemented with concrete projects at

the ground level. Community-based groups tackle violence against women,
rural and urban women establish economic undertakings that help them
increase their income, wives and families of migrant workers establish their
own savings and insurance network, and crisis centers are organized in some
parts of the country. Even prostituted women have found both protection and
solidarity within their organizations.

These activities
activities have
have seen
seen success
successes
es and failures,
failures, but they constit
constitute
ute aass
challenges to the socio-cultural bondage and blinders that up to this age of the
Internet and globalization has victimized the Filipina.
104

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Summary

1. The legal framework has provided

provided basic frameworks
frameworks and processes for
women empowerment and gender fairness, but the dynamics of
political and social institutions reinforced by the cultural standpoints
continue to provide a push-pull effect on gender equality.

2. Women have made significant

significant aadvances
dvances in politics. T
Though
hough there may
be several factors that tends to lessen its importance --like belonging
to a political dynasty, the role of women in national and local decision-
making can no longer be ignored and their competence, in some cases,
suits up or even exceeds that of male politicians.

3. The women's voice in the society is very strong due the vibrant
women's movement. Recognized for their work in the international
and national levels, the movement has been instrumental in pushing
for many changes in the various facets of the Philippine society.
Additionally, the various organizations have worked on --with
pioneering educational approaches and service-specific projects-- the
"culture shift" of both men and women.

4. The statist
statistics
ics on women remain indicative
indicative of the deep-rooted and
widespread problems they encounter in their daily lives. The labor
market has stereotyped women, disadvantaged them in jobs and
incomes, and even forced them into
in to prostitutions
prostitutions and slave-like work.
The social image of a Filipina is still that of a weak person, poster girl
of domestic help, expert in double burden, and a sexual object. While
the mainframe of gender politics is changing, the struggle of women

to escape from the traditiona

traditionall mold everyday life continues.
 105

GENDER AND SOCIETY

106

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #10:
My Opinion Matters
Exploring Student Opinions About Sexual
Harassment Facts and Myths

General Instructions:
1. Hand out worksheet to students. Remind them to work quietly.
2. When they have finished, divide
divide into small groups tto
o discuss their
responses to the questions.
3. Have students consider the following questions during their
discussion.
a. During your discussion, did anyone in your group try to
convince you to change your answer?
b. How did your answers differ from other students in your
group?
c. Which questions
questions did your group aanswer
nswer the sasame?
me?
d. During your group discussion, did anything said by another
student surprise you?

4. Once small groups have met, bring the class back together and read
through the questionnaire statement by statement in order to
stimulatee a greater discussion. Allow students to come to their own
stimulat o wn
conclusions by constantly questioning the reasons for their beliefs.

5. Use this opportunity for a writing assignment. Have students write

what they learned about sexual harassment, the participants in their
small groups and the class as a whole. Was anything said that made
them change their way of thinking toward sexual harassment?
 107

GENDER AND SOCIETY

108

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #10
#10

General Instructions:

1. Evaluate students by moving around the classroom and observing

their listening and speaking efforts in small groups.

2. Evaluate students
students by reading their written responses to the exercise.
It can be assessed in terms of effort, content, and style.
 109

GENDER AND SOCIETY

110

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Assessment #10
#10
Directions: Read the following statements and circle the response that
best supports your opinion.

1. Girls sexually harass girls, and boys sexually harass boys.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

2. Even though they dislike it, friends allow sexual harassm

harassment
ent to
happen to their friends.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

3. Teachers and educational

educational sta
staff
ff ignore sexual hara
harassment
ssment and allow
allow
it to go on in school.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

4. Girls who dress in sexy clothing are asking for attention and to be
harassed.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

5. Flirting is sexual harassment.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

6. Sexual harassment does not happen at home.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

7. Sexual harassment can be prevented.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

8. A student who files

files an official complai
complaint
nt against a harasser should
expect to be taunted for being a tattle-tale.
tattle-tale.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

9. Younger children are not capable of sexua

sexuall harass
harassment.
ment.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

10. Women sexually harass

harass men and get away with it easier than men
men
sexually harassing women.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree
 111

GENDER AND SOCIETY

11. Boys cannot be sexually harassed.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

12. In most cases of sexual harassment, males harass females.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

13. Offensive graffiti

graffiti on the bathroom wall is not sexual harassment
harassment..
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

14. Little children as young as five or six years old can be harassers.
h arassers.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

15. Reporting sexual harassment gets positive results.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

16. All harassment is intentiona

intentional.l.
Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

17. Harassment can be flattering.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree

18. Sexual harassment is a fact of life.

Strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree
112

GENDER AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER
Chapter11
11
GENDER ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXTS

Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from
their own point of view, which they confuse with absolute truth.
(Simone de Beauvoir)

As Eleanor Roosevelt and

Learning Objectives countless others have observed,
At the end of this chapter, students international politics is a man's world.
will learn: It is a world inhabited by diplomats,
soldiers, and international civil
1. relate gender and development as servants most of whom are men. Apart
a goal and process’
from the occasional head of state,
2. analyze the gender and
developmentt policy approaches;
developmen there is little evidence to suggest that
3. explore International gender women have played much of a role in
issues, and; shaping foreign policy in any country
4. illustrate reproductive health in the twentieth century. In the United
issues. States in 1987, women constituted less
than 5 percent of the senior Foreign
Service ranks, and in the same year, less than 4 percent of the executive
positions in the Department of Defense were held by women. Although it is
true that women are underrepresented in all top-level government positions in
the United States and elsewhere, they encounter additional difficulties in
positions having to do with international politics. The following stories can
help us to understand why.

Before the superpower summit in Geneva in 1985, Donald Regan,

then White House chief of staff, told a Washington Post reporter that women
would not
n ot understand the issues at stake at that meeting. As reported in the
Boston Globe of October 10, 1985, Regan claimed that women are "not...
going to understand [missile] throw-weights or what is happening in
Afghanistan or what is hhappening
appening in human rights. ... Some women will, but
most women... would rather read the human interest stuff of what happened."
Protesting Regan's remarks, feminists cited women's prominent roles in the
various peace movements of the twentieth century as evidence of their
competency in international
international affairs.

When Bella Abzug entered thethe House of Representa

Representatives
tives in 197
1972,
2, she
claimed that ending the war in Vietnam was the most important item on the
congressional agenda and the one on which she most wanted to work as the
 113

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Key Concepts
representative of the many
women and men in her district
Strength, power, autonomy, independence, who opposed the war. With this
and rationality, all typically associated with goal in mind, Abzug requested a
men and masculinity
masculinity,, are characteristics we seat on the House Armed
most value
conduct in those
of our to policy
foreign whomand
we the
entrust the
defense Services Committee, a committee
on which, in 1972, no woman
of our national interest.
had served in the past twenty-two
Characteristics associated with "manliness"
"manliness",, years. Abzug's request was
such as toughness, courage, power, denied by members of the House
independence, and even physical strength, leadership, one of whom
have, throughout history, been those most suggested that the Agriculture
valued in the conduct
co nduct of politics, particularly
Committee would be more
international politics.
appropriate. In her account of
The way in which our understanding of this incident, Abzug notes that,
gender signifies relationships of power is of the twelve women in the
through a set of normative concepts that set House of Representatives in
forth interpretations of the meanings of 1972, five were assigned to the
symbols. Education and Labor
Given our current techn
t echnologies
ologies of destruction Committee, evidence that
and the high degree of economic inequality suggests that women in politics
and environmental degradation that now are channeled into certain arenas
exists, we are desperately in need of changes of public policy that are
in the way world politics is conducted;
conducted; perceived as "women's issues."
many of them are attempting to prescribe More recently, a picture
such changes. of Congresswoman Patricia
Schroeder crying on her
husband's shoulder, which appeared on the front page of several major
American newspapers after she withdrew from the presidential primary
campaign in September 1987, stimulated subsequent discussion about her
suitability as a presidential candidate. The discussion revealed that, even
though Schroeder is one of the very few women who has served on the House
Armed Services Committee, many people in the United States had strong
misgivings over the thought of an emotional woman with her finger on the
nuclear button.

Each of these stories reinforces the belief, widely held in the United
States and throughout the world by both men and women, that military and
foreign policy are arenas of policy-making least appropriate for women.
Strength, power, autonomy, independence, and rationality, all typically

associated
to whom we with men and
entrust the masculinity, are foreign
conduct of our characteristics we most
policy and value inof
the defense those
our
114

GENDER AND SOCIETY

national interest. Those women in the peace movements, whom feminist

critics of Donald Regan cited as evidence for women's involvement in
international affairs, are frequently branded as naive, weak, and even
unpatriotic. When we think about the definition of a patriot, we generally think
of a man, often a soldier who defends his homeland, most especially his
women and children, from dangerous out outsiders.
siders. (We sometimes
sometimes ev
even
en think of
a missile or a football team.) The Schroeder story suggests that even women
who have experience in foreign policy issues are perceived as being too
emotional and too weak for the tough life-and-death decisions required for the
nation's defense. Weakness is always considered a danger when issues of
national security are at stake: the president's dual role as commander in chief
reinforces our belief that qualities we associate with "manliness" are of utmost
importance in the selection of our presidents.

The few women who do make make it into the

the foreign policy est
establishment
ablishment
often suffer from this negative perception: Jeane Kirkpatrick is one such
example. Attracted by her authoritative and forceful public style and strong
anti-communist rhetoric, Ronald Reagan appointed Kirkpatrick as ambassador
to the United Nations in 1981. Yet in spite of the visibility she achieved due
to her strong stance against anti-American voices at the United Nations,
Kirkpatrick complained of not being taken seriously by her peers both in the
United Nations and in the U.S. foreign policy establishment. Although other
American ambassadors to the United
United Nations have also
also complained that they
lack influence over U.S. foreign policy-making, Kirkpatrick specifically
attributed this lack of respect to her sex: describing herself to one reporter as
a "mouse in a man's world," Kirkpatrick claimed that her views were seldom
listened to and that she failed to have any effect whatsoever on the course of
American foreign policy.

The experiences of Abzug, Schroeder, and Kirkpatrick-- women with

very different political perspectives (two liberal Democrats and one
conservative Republican)-- are examples of the difficulties that women face
when they try to
to enter the elite world of foreign policy decision-making.
decision-making.

Gender in International Relations

We seldom realize we think in these

these terms, however; in most fields of
knowledge we have become accustomed to equating what is human with what
is masculine. Nowhere is this more true than in international relations, a
discipline that, while it has for the most part resisted the introduction of gender
into its discourse, bases its assumptions and explanations almost entirely on
the activities and experiences of men. Any attempt to introduce a more
 115

GENDER AND SOCIETY

explicitly gendered analysis into the field must therefore begin with a
discussion of masculinity.

Masculinity and politics have a long and close association.

Characteristics associated with "manliness," such as toughness, courage,
power, independence, and even physical strength, have, throughout history,
been those most valued in the conduct of politics, particularly international
politics. Frequently, manliness has also been associated with violence and the
use of force, a type of behavior that, when conducted in the international
arena, has been valorized and applauded in the name of defending one's
country.

This celebration of male power, particularly the glorification of the

male warrior, produces more of a gender dichotomy than exists in reality for,
as R. W. Connell points out, this stereotypical image of masculinity does not
fit most men. Connell suggests that what he calls "hegemonic masculinity," a
type of culturally dominant masculinity that he distinguishes from other
subordinated masculinities, is a socially constructed cultural ideal that, while it
does not correspond to the actual personality of the majority of men, sustains
patriarchal authority and legitimizes a patriarchal political and social order.

Hegemonic masculinity is sustained through its opposition to various

subordinated and devalued masculinities, such as homosexuality, and, more
important, through its relation to various devalued femininities. Socially
constructed gender differences are based on socially sanctioned, unequal
relationships between men and women that reinforce compliance with men's
stated superiority.
superiority. Nowhere in the public realm are these stereotypical gender
images more apparent than in the realm of international politics, where the
characteristics associated with hegemonic masculinity are projected onto the
behavior of states whose success as international actors is measured in terms
of their power capabilities and capacity for self-help and autonomy.

Connell's definition of hegemonic masculinity depends on its

opposition to and unequal relationship with various subordinated femininities.
Many contemporary feminists draw on similarly socially constructed, or
engendered, relationships in their definition of gender difference. Historically,
differences between men and women have usually been ascribed to biology.
But when feminists use the term gender today, they are not generally referring
to biological differences between males and females, but to a set of culturally
shaped and defined characterist
characteristics
ics associated with masculinity and femininity.

These characteristics
biologycharacteristics can
may constrain and dobut
behavior, vary acrossnot
it should time
beand
usedplace. In this view,
"deterministically"
116

GENDER AND SOCIETY

or "naturally" to justify practices, institutions, or choices that could be other

than they are. While what it means to be a man or a woman varies across
cultures and history, in most cultures gender differences signify relationships
of inequality and the domination of women by men.

Joan Scott similarly characterizes gender as "a constitutive

constitutive element of
social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and... a
primary way of signifying relationships of power." Indeed, one could
characterize most contemporary feminist scholarship in terms of the dual
beliefs that gender difference has played an important and essential role in the
structuring of social inequalities in much of human history and that the
resulting differences in self-identifications, human understandings, social
status, and power relationships are unjustified.

Scott claims that the way in which our understanding of gender

signifies relationships of power is through a set of normative concepts that set
forth interpretations of the meanings of symbols. In Western culture, these
concepts take the form of fixed binary oppositions that categorically assert the
meaning of masculine and feminine and hence legitimize a set of unequal social
relationships. Scott and many other contemporary feminists assert that,
through our use of language, we come to perceive the world through these
binary oppositions.

Our Western understanding of gender is based on a set of culturally

determined binary distinctions, such as public versus private, objective versus
subjective, self versus other, reason versus emotion, autonomy versus
relatedness, and culture versus nature; the first of each pair of characteristics
is typically associated with masculinity, the second with femininity. Scott claims
that the hierarchical construction of these distinctions can take on a fixed and
permanent quality that perpetuates women's oppression: therefore, they must
be challenged. To do so we must analyze the way these binary oppositions
operate in different contexts and, rather than accepting them as fixed, seek to
displace their hierarchical construction. When many of these differences
between women and men are no longer assumed to be natural or fixed, we can
examine how relations of gender inequality are constructed and sustained in
various arenas of public and private life. In committing itself to gender as a
category of analysis, contemporary feminism also commits itself to gender
equality as a social goal.

Extending Scott's challenge to the field of international relations, we

can
spiteimmediately detect obvious
of the seemingly a similar association
set of hierarchical binary oppositions.
of international Butthe
politics with in
 117

GENDER AND SOCIETY

masculine characteristics
characteristics described above, the field o
off international relations is
one of the last of the social sciences to be touched by gender analysis and
feminist perspectives.
perspectives. The reason for this is not that the field is gender neutral,
meaning that the introduction of gender is irrelevant to its subject matter as
many scholars believe, but that it is so thoroughly masculinized that the
workings of these
these hierarchical gender rrelations
elations are hidden.
hidden.
Framed in its own set of binary distinctions, the discipline of
international relations assumes similarly hierarchical relationships when it
posits an anarchic world "outside" to be defended against through the
accumulation and rational use of power. In political discourse, this becomes
translated
translated into stereotypical notions about those who inhabit the outside. Like
women, foreigners are frequently
frequently portrayed as "the other": nonwhites and
tropical countries are often depicted as irrational, emotional, and unstable,
characteristics that are also attributed to women. The construction of this
discourse and the way in which we are taught to think about international
politics closely parallel the way in which we are socialized into understanding
gender differences. To ignore these hierarchical constructions and their
relevance to power is therefore to risk perpetuating these relationships of
domination and subordination.
subordination.

Feminist Theories and International Relations

Since, as suggested, the world of international politics is a masculine

domain, how could feminist perspectives contribute anything new to its
academic discourses? Many male scholars have already noted that, given our
current technologies of destruction and the high degree of economic inequality
and environmental degradation that now exists, we are desperately in need of
changes in thesuch
to prescribe waychanges.
world politics is conducted;
For the most part,many of them
however, arecritics
these attempting
have
ignored the extent to which the values and assumptions that drive our
contemporary international system are intrinsically related to concepts of
masculinity; privileging these values constrains the options available to states
and their policymakers. All knowledge is partial and is a function of the
knower's lived experience in the world. Since knowledge about the behavior
of states in the international system depends on assumptions that come out of
men's experiences, it ignores a large body of human experience that has the
potential for increasing the range of options and opening up new ways of
thinking about interstate practices. Theoretical perspectives that depend on a
broader range of human experience are important for women and men alike,
as we seek new ways of thinking about our contemporary dilemmas.
118

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Conventional international relations theory has concentrated on the

activities of the great powers at the center of the system. Feminist theories,
which speak
speak out of the various experiences of women--
women-- who are
are usually
usually on the
margins of society and interstate politics-- can offer us some new insights on
the behavior of states and the needs of individuals, particularly those on the
peripheries of the international
in ternational system
system.. Feminist perspectives, construct
constructed
ed out
of the experiences of women, can add a new dimension to our understanding
of the world economy; since women are frequently the first casualties in times
of economic hardship, we might also gain some new insight into the
relationship between militarism and structu
structural
ral violence.

However, feminist theories must go beyond injecting women's

experiences into different disciplines and attempt to challenge the core
concepts of the disciplines themselves. Concepts central to international
relations theory and practice, such as power, sovereignty, and security, have
been framed in terms that we associate with masculinity. Drawing on feminist
theories to examine and critique the meaning of these and other concepts
fundamental to international politics could help us to reformulate these
concepts in ways that might allow us to see new possibilities for solving our
current insecurities. Suggesting that the personal is political, feminist scholars
have brought to our attention distinctions between public and private in the
domestic polity: examining these artificial boundary distinctions in the
domestic polity could shed new light on international boundaries, such as
those between anarchy and order, which are so fundamental to the conceptual
framework of realist discourse.

Most contemporary feminist perspectives take the gender inequalities

that have been described above as a basic assumption. Feminists in various
disciplines claim that feminist theories, by revealing and challenging these
gender hierarchies, have the potential to transform disciplinary paradigms. By
introducing gender into the discipline of international relations, it is hoped to
challenge the way in which the field has traditionally
traditionally been constructed and to
examine the extent to which the practices of international politics are related
to these gender inequalities.
inequalities.

The construction
construction of hierarchical binary oppositions has been central
to theorizing about international relations.
relations. Distinctions between domestic and
foreign, inside and outside, order and anarchy, and center and periphery have
served as important assumptions in theory construction and as organizing
principles for the way we view the world. Just as realists center their

explanations
unequal classonrelations,
the hierarchical
feministsrelations between
can bring statesgender
to light and Marxists on
hierarchies
 119

GENDER AND SOCIETY

embedded in the theories and practices of world politics and allow us to see
the extent to which all these systems of domination are interrelat
in terrelated.
ed. As Sarah
Brown argues, a feminist theory of international relations is an act of political
commitment to understanding the world from the perspective of the socially
subjugated. "There is the need to identify the as yet unspecified relation
between the construction of power and the construction of gender in
international relations." Acknowledging, as most feminist theories do, that
these hierarchies are socially constructe
co nstructed,
d, also allows us to envisage conditions
necessary for their transcendence.
120

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Summary

1. The world has been widely dominated b byy men in terms politics and
other positions. Three women stories of authoritative and forceful
public style still, women still complained of not being taken seriously
by their peers.

2. Masculinity and politics have a long and close association.

Characteristics associated with "manliness," such as toughness,
courage, power, independence, and even physical strength, have,
throughout history, been those most valued in the conduct of politics,
particularly international politics.

3. Many male scholars have already noted that, given our current
technologies of destruction and the high degree of economic inequality
and environmental degradation that now exists, we are desperately in

need of changestoinprescribe
are attempting the way such
worldchanges.
politics is conduct
conducted;
ed; many of them
 121

GENDER AND SOCIETY

122

GENDER AND SOCIETY

Name: __________________________________________________
Section: ____________ Date Submitted: __________________

Exercise #11

General Instructions:
1. Form a group of 10 members.
2. Select a leader.
3. Brainstorm on the different positions that a gender may handle
specifically in the political world.
4. After the time
time is up, present your output.
 123

GENDER AND SOCIETY

124

GENDER AND SOCIETY

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GENDER AND SOCIETY

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

AUTHORS

FRANCIS THAISE A. CIMENE holds the following

degrees: Bachelor in Elementary Education,

Bachelor of Arts in Sociology (Magna Cum
Laude), Master of Arts in Sociology, Master of
Arts in Education major in Educational
Administration, and Doctor of Philosophy in
Educational Management. At present, she
teaches at the University of Science and
Technology of Southern Philippines and serves
as National Assessor of the Commission on
Higher Education for the Institutional Sustainability Assessment. She is an
active member of the National Research Council of the Philippines and had
published books and researches both locally and internationally. Former

positions held include: Dean of the Graduate School and Director for
Research and Extension at Capitol University.

FRITZIE BERINGUEL-SALADO is the Head of the

Social Sciences Unit under the College of
Sciences and Mathematics at University of
Science and Technology of Southern
Philippines (USTP) who finished the First
Generation Trainors’ Training of the General
Education Core Course – Ethics sponsored by
CHED and attended a Seminar-Workshop for
General Education Curriculum – Contemporary World. Her degree of
Bachelor of Arts major in Political Science was earned at Mindanao State
University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) and Master of Arts in
Teaching Social Studies at Cagayan de Oro College-PHINMA. She was a fourth
year law student at Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan. For almost 20
years, she has been teaching Social Sciences courses particularly in the field
of Political Science, Philosophy and Psychology. She is always an advocator
for value formation.
 133

GENDER AND SOCIETY

MA CYNTHIA FE V. SIWAGAN is a full-time

faculty member of the Social Sciences Unit
under the College of Science & Mathematics at
the University of Science and Technology of
Southern Philippines (USTP). She obtained her
Bachelor of Arts in Sociology-Anthropology at
Xavier University- Ateneo de Cagayan, Cagayan
de Oro City and Master of Arts in Health Social
Science at De La Salle University, Manila. She
also earned a Certificate of Teaching at USTP. Currently, she is taking up a
doctoral degree in Sociology at Xavier University- Ateneo de Cagayan. She is
a member of the Pi Gamma Mu Beta Chapter in De La Salle University and
Philippine Mental Health Association- Mis. Or. Chapter. Her research
interests include:
include: reproductive health, ccontemporary
ontemporary and gender issues. She
is a licensed teacher who has been serving the academe for more than a
decade. Also, she completed the CHED “Seminar -Workshop for Faculty of
Higher Education Institutions Teaching Core and Mandated Courses of the
General Education Curriculum (GE) in CMO No.20 series 2013: Parallel
Sessions” at Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City.

JOSE IMMANUEL O. PATRIMONIO is a licensed

Psychometrician graduated with a Bachelors
degree in Psychology with honors from Xavier
University-Ateneo de Cagayan. He has been
immersed in various fields including formal
teaching, formation work, social advocacy,
volunteer management, program
coordination, capacity building, information
technology, research and organizational
development. His work experiences primarily revolve around the
development sector and the academe. He is currently pursuing a career as a
Psychology professional in the ministries of holistic formation and social
involvement.
134

GENDER AND SOCIETY

MARIA ELIZA D. SANTANDER finished her

Bachelor of Arts in Sociology degree from
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of
Technology (MSU-IIT), Iligan City. She earned
her Masters degree in Sociology from the same
University. She also graduated Bachelor of Laws
(LLB) at Mindanao State University-Extension
Campus MSU-IIT, Iligan City. She is a bonafide
member of Philippine Sociological S Society.
ociety. Her
interests include research on cultural diversity, sociology of crimes,
environment, population, migration, and others. She participated in one of
the Seminar-Workshops for General Education Curriculum – Contemporary
World. Currently, she is te
teaching
aching at the University of Sc
Science
ience and Technology
of Southern Philippines, Cagayan de Oro City.

MERCYLYN L. TANOG is registered Guidance

Counsellor who heads the Guidance Service
Unit of the University of Science and
Technology of Southern Philippines. Her
bachelor’s degree of Psychology was earned at
University of San Carlos and Master of Arts in
School Counselling at De La Salle University,
Manila. She has been invited by different
agencies to conduct seminars and trainings in line with her field. She is
currently enrolled at Siliman University taking up PhD in Clinical Psychology.

FIONA MARY M. CABRILLOS holds the

following degrees: Bachelor of Arts in English,
Master of Arts in English Language Studies, and
Doctor of Philosophy in Educational
Management. At present, she teaches at the
University of Science and Technology of
Southern Philippines. She had published books
and research locally. Former positions held
include: Professor 1, English Intensive
Coordinator and Extension Coordinator at Capitol University.