What is and why Balancing is required.

To the average person, rotor balancing is often a "black art". Most people’s knowledge and
understanding of balancing is limited. Cars wheels and tyres must be balanced before fitting
to cars; otherwise they will experience steering wheel judder, uneven wear on tyres and so
on.

This article will give people who don’t understand an insight into the world of balancing and
help to remove the "black art" that some people may think it is.

High speed machinery is a fact of life these days with many OEMs (Original Equipment
Manufacturers) around the world today manufacturing high speed machines. In the Oil & Gas
industry Compressors, Turbo Expanders, Turbo chargers and others it has become the norm
with OEM’s to produce high speed machines rather than the exception. One clear benefit of
this trend is the achievement of greater efficiency that is required of the end users and
productivity through increasingly higher rotor speeds.

As the rotor speeds increase and machining centers continue to increase, the potential for
adverse effects to the machine vibration increases exponentially because centrifugal force
increases with the square of the speed.

One of the major contributors to machinery vibration and the easiest to control is rotor
unbalance. Since the impellers can be uniformly balanced to the appropriate ISO or API
recommended levels.

Rotor unbalance has many well-known effects on the machining process. The most obvious is
vibration and noise within the machine. One common reaction to vibration is to reduce the
Rotor speed, which of course reduces the capability of the machine.
This article will discuss in greater detail the rotor speeds at which High speed balancing
becomes critical.

Unbalance definition

Unbalance is defined as "That condition that exists in a rotor when vibratory force or motion is
imparted to its bearings as a result of centrifugal force." Unbalance is caused by an uneven
distribution of mass around the axis of rotation of a rotating body. This can result from fixed as
well as variable sources. The fixed causes of unbalance result from non-symmetry of design.
The variable causes include material irregularities in forgings, castings, voids and porosity in
the base material, operational factors such as distortion due to centrifugal force, and
manufacturing tolerances. Unbalance in a rotor causes displacement of the principal axis of
inertia (mass axis) from the axis of rotation. When perfectly balanced, these axes are
coincident.

Unbalance levels and tolerances can be described in several ways, the most common being
by stating the amount of weight required to correct the unbalance multiplied by the radius at
which the weight is applied. Hence, units such as ounce-inches or gram-millimeters are used.
Conversely, unbalance also can be defined as the amount of weight required to balance the
part at a given radius (normally the O.D.). This is more of a process definition of the allowable
residual unbalance in a part and is described as "X grams (or ounces) at the radius," for
example. Unbalance levels also can be described by the amount of displacement of the
principal inertia axis from the rotational axis as described above. The units used in this case
are normally in micro-inches or microns (micro-meters).

Unbalance and Center-of-Gravity Displacement

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The relationship between unbalance and center-of-gravity (C.G.) displacement is of great
importance in understanding balancing. Take the example of a perfectly balanced disc
weighing 999 ounces; then add a one-ounce mass at a 10-inch radius.

The unbalance (U) can be found by multiplying the mass (m) times the radius (r).

U = m x r (1)
U = 1 oz. x 10 in. = 10 oz. in.

By definition, the weight of the disc is concentrated at the C.G. The unbalance mass tends to
pull the C.G. away from the geometric center, causing a displacement called eccentricity (e)
or:

U = W x e (2)
W = 999 + 1 = 1,000 oz.

By substituting the known values we can then solve for e.

e = U = 10 oz. in. = 0.01 in.

W 1,000 oz.

An unbalanced rotor
As explained, unbalance exists in a rotor when the mass centre axis is different to its running
centre axis. Practically all newly machined rotating parts are non symmetrical due to uneven
machining, castings, uneven number and position of bolt holes, parts fitted off-centre,
machined diameters eccentric to the bearing locations and welding of impellers, etc.

An unbalanced rotor, when rotating, wants to revolve around its mass centre axis. Because
the bearings restrict this movement, the centrifugal force, due to the unbalance, causes the
rotor to vibrate. This vibration cause’s wear to the bearing’s, dry gas seals, shaft sleeves,
other components and can also create unnecessary noise. In most cases it will cause
disintegration of the rotor and internal components itself. It is therefore necessary to reduce
the unbalance to an acceptable low level or limit.

Types of rotors
Rotating elements fall into two categories. One is where the rotor is rigid and does not deflect
up to and including the operating speed. In other words in runs below it’s first mode,
sometimes called by non qualified people “the first critical speed”, but this is not strictly
correct. However I will not discuss this in this article.

The other category comprises of flexible rotors that “bow” below it’s operating speed. It can be
described like the first deflection as a “skipping rope effect” which means the centre of the
rotor at speed moves out from its rotational axis, causing high “static” unbalance.

Types of unbalance

There are three types of unbalance that I will describe in detail,

1. Static unbalance
2. Couple unbalance
3. Dynamic unbalance

Static unbalance.

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Static unbalance is where the mass axis is displaced only parallel to the shaft axis as shown
in Figure 1. The unbalance is corrected only in one axial plane. Static unbalance arises when
the principal inertia axis is displaced parallel to the axis of rotation. It can be compensated for
by either adding or removing material equal in weight to the unbalance amount in a single
plane, perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Static unbalance can be measured either on a
rotating or non-rotating balancing machine.

Figure 1: Static unbalance.

Couple unbalance.

Couple unbalance, is where the mass axis intersects the running axis. For example: a disk
that has run-out with no static unbalance. The unbalance is usually corrected in two planes.
See Figure 2

Couple unbalance exists when two equal unbalance masses are positioned exactly 180' apart
in two planes perpendicular to the axis of rotation. This causes the principal axis of inertia to
displace not parallel to but intersecting with, the axis of rotation at the center of gravity (C.G.)
of the part. A couple unbalance only can be corrected with another couple. That is, by
applying correction equal and opposite to the original couple. It only can be measured
on a rotating-type balancing machine.

Figure 2: Couple unbalance.

Dynamic unbalance.

Dynamic unbalance is where the mass axis is not coincidental with the rotational axis. This
unbalance is usually a combination of static and couple unbalance and is corrected in two or
even three planes.

Dynamic unbalance is the most commonly occurring type of unbalance. It is the combination
of static and couple unbalance. It causes the principal axis of inertia to deflect from the
rotational axis both non-parallel to it and not intersecting with it at the C.G. as shown in
Figure 3. Dynamic unbalance only can be corrected in two planes by adding or removing

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material. Like couple unbalance, it only can be measured on a rotational type balancing
machine.

Figure 3: Dynamic unbalance.

Methods of correcting unbalance

There are a number of methods to correct unbalance by either removing material from a
prescribed area on the rotor by drilling, grinding, or even milling etc from the heavy position
on the component is used to correct the unbalance. Alternatively material can be corrected by
adding material to the “light” position on the rotor by bolting or welding balance weights to
reduce unbalance but in most cases and especially high speed rotors this is very seldom
done.

The American Petroleum Institute 617 (API 617) goes into great detail on methods of
balancing; for an example.

Balancing machines
High-speed Balancing is a fact of life in many machine shops around the world today. In the
Oil & Gas it has become the norm rather than the exception. One clear benefit of this trend is
the achievement of greater efficiency and productivity through increasingly higher rotor
speeds by high speed balancing. However, as the rotor speeds of machining centers continue
to increase, the potential for adverse effects to the machine and the rotor due to vibration
increases exponentially because centrifugal force increases with the square of the speed.

To identify the position and amount of unbalance, balancing machines are used by OEM’s to
correct any unbalance that exists. These machines are so sensitive that they can easily and
accurately identify any mass axis 0.001mm off the running axis.

One type of machine will only identify static unbalance. This is used for balancing disk shaped
parts. Another type of machine will identify unbalances in two axial planes, e.g. for balancing
a rotors whose length is proportionally greater than its diameter. These machines are
available in versions that balance the rotor in either the horizontal or vertical axis.

With the use of modern electronics, accuracy easily exceeds national and international
standards. The set-up of the machine is very simple by just typing the measurements
into a computer, such as a Schenck, IRD or Hofmann and a few others.

Full Speed Rotor Balance machines started to come in existence in the 1960’s with the first
one located in Texas, USA and since them many OEMs such as General Electric, Elliott,
Mann, Sulzer, Dresser and many others turbo-machinery OEM’s now have these machines.

Balancing rigid rotors

Because unbalance exists in a component even when stationary, rigid rotors can be balanced
at a low speed, just enough to produce a centrifugal force to register the unbalance. Rotors of

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this type are normally balanced from speeds of 250 to 800 RPM depending on the design,
rotor weight and the balancing machine capabilities.

Balancing flexible rotors

This type of rotor balances at a low speed when the rotor does not flex. However correction
for unbalance should be made when the rotor is at its maximum continuous speed and the
unbalance is corrected in stages until the rotor’s operating speed is reached, this is called
High or Full Speed Balancing.

Why Full Speed Balancing of flexible rotors

In this case Flexible rotor that should be full speed balanced as it runs above its 1 st mode
there are five primary reasons, and they are:

1. Full speed balancing of flexible rotors often called High Speed Balance is more effective
than low speed balancing as low speed balancing does not reveal where unbalances
exist at operating speed.

2. Mechanical integrity of the rotor is verified throughout the entire speed range prior to
operation; even thought a FAT may have taken place some of the imbalanced may have
been dampened out

3. Sensitivity and balancing accuracy are increased due to the lower mass and greater
flexibility of Full speed balance pedestals compared to the more rigid supports typically
used on low speed balance machines.

4. After Full speed balance, the calculated rotor response can be verified. This is useful
when a mechanical test of the rotor in a casing is not practical, such as for spare rotors,
re-built rotors and re-rated rotors.

5. The impellers have to be machined (scalloped) on the rotor without removing each
impeller. API 617 is very clear that impellers and shafts have to be individual balanced as
stated in API 6th edition section 2.9.5.2. However due to the possibility of impeller bore
damage if they are removed from the shaft, it has been decided and agreed to machine
the impellers in-situ on the shaft. Therefore to determine the integrity of the rotor
response, impeller integrity a high speed balance will be required.

Balancing limits
There are balance limits, just like machining limits, tolerances and fits, where the unbalance is
acceptable. International and national standards are quoted for rotor balancing such as API,
ISO, for example: car wheels are balanced to a limit of grade ISO G40 and compressor rotors
are balanced to grade ISO G2.5. The limits are converted to unbalance units, depending on
the rotational speed of the rotor as per ISO 1940 and API 617 6th and 7th edition standards.

Units of unbalance
The units of unbalance are mass times radius, for example: a weight added to a certain
position on the part being balanced would shift the mass axis into the running axis and
therefore be in balance. The weight of correction multiplied by the applied radius will give an
unbalance unit.

For metric measurement the units will be gram-millimetres (g/mm) or for large rotors, gram-
centimetres. The Imperial equivalent will be gram-inches or ounce-inches. This weight (mass)
would be applied at a radius from the running centre at the light position.

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Below table describes the balance tolerance that a majority of equipment manufacturers
use.

Balance quality ew 1] 2]
Rotor Types - General examples
grade G mm/s

- Car wheels, wheel rims, wheel sets, drive shafts.

- Crankshaft-drives of elastically mounted fast four-cycle
G 40 40
engines (gasoline or diesel) with six or more cylinders4).
- Crankshaft-drives for engines of cars, trucks and locomotives.

- Drive Shafts (propeller shafts, cardan-shafts)

- Parts of crushing machinery.
- Parts of agricultural machinery.
G 16 16 - Individual components of engines (gasoline or diesel) for cars,
trucks and locomotives.
- Crankshaft-drives of engines with six or more cylinders under
special requirements.

- Parts or process plant machines.

- Marine main turbine gears (merchant service).
- Centrifugal drums.
- Fans
- Assembled aircraft gas turbine rotors.
G 6,3 6,3
- Fly wheels.
- Pump impellers.
- Machine-tool and general machinery parts.
- Normal electrical armatures.
- Individual components of engines under special requirements.

- Gas and steam turbines, including marine turbines (merchant

service).
- Rigid turbo-generator rotors.
- Turbo-compressors.
G 2,5 2,5 - Machine-tool drives.
- Medium and large electrical armatures with special
requirements.
- Small electrical armatures.
- Turbine-driven pumps.

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 - Tape recorder and phonographs (gramophone) drives.
G1 1 - Grinding-machine drives.
- Small electrical armatures with special requirements

- Spindles, disks and armatures of precision grinders.

G 0,4 0,4
- Gyroscopes.

1] w = 2xn / 60-N / 0, if n is measured in revolutions per minute and w in radians per second.
To simplify: Tolerance = Component Weight [kg] x Quality Grade x 9549 / Operational Speed
[RPM]

2] In general, for rigid rotors with two correction planes, one-half of the recommended residual
unbalance is to be taken for each plane.