Quality control
and
Inspection
quality – definition
Fitness for use
Confirmation of specification
Degree of excellence
Quality is what the customer wants
quality control
Quality of a product depends on the application of men,
material, machines and manufacturing conditions
Systematic control of these factors is called quality
control
Quality control can be defined as the industrial
management technique by means of which products
of uniformly acceptable quality are manufactured
continuously.
QC – Continued
Control of quality during production
It periodically checks whether processes are as per plan
and policies , checks the deviations and corrects the
same
Quality control is concerned with making things right
rather than rejecting the wrong ones
Collection of duties performed to build excellent quality
objectives.
Quality control process
quality control – objectives
Improved performance of firm
Reduction of errors
To implement production methods and product design
Improved quality
Helps in standardisation and interchangeability
Customer satisfaction
Increased profit
Ensure uniform acceptable quality
Determine causes of variation
Inspection
Process of meeting the quality of product or service in
terms of established standards
Art of comparing materials , products or performance with
established standards
Tool for quality control
Inspection rejects bad products and accepts good products
Inspection
Inspection is performed under static conditions
Varies from visual examination to complex
measurements
It controls the quality of a product
Different from testing
objectives
Find out and remove faulty material before machining
To remove defective material as soon as the defect
occurs
To ensure defective product does not reach customer
To earn goodwill
Safety
Locate defects in design
To rate accuracy of inspector and precision of measuring
instruments
To ensure proper functioning of assemblies
Functions of inspection department
Inspection of raw materials
Metallurgical and metallographical inspection
Purchased parts inspection
Process inspection
Tools inspection
Finished goods inspection
Complaints handling
Areas of inspection
Incoming material inspection –
a. physical and chemical properties of incoming material
b. Suppliers quality ability
Manufacturing inspection –
a. Inspecting a part before next operation
b. Inspecting parts before critical operation or sub assembly
c. Inspection of subassemblies before final assembly
d. Before finishing or before sending to another department
Types of inspection
First piece inspection
Hundred percent inspection
Sampling inspection
Operating inspection
Key operation inspection
Manufacturing inspection
Floor inspection
Centralised inspection
Endurance inspection
sampling
probabilistic sampling
non probabilistic sampling
Floor Inspection
Patrol or roaming inspection
Inspector is moving around and checks the workpieces
as they are being made
Helps in early detection and correction of faults
Saves time and effort
Prevents the wastage of material
advantages – floor inspection
Early detection and correction of faults
Helps in removing faulty materials as soon as possible
Less material handling
Suitable for heavy and light workpieces
Reduced labour cost
No mixing of defective and bad workpieces
disadvantages – floor
inspection
Precision and costly equipment cannot be used
Biased inspection
Piling of workpieces near workstations
Rejections may lead to friction between workers and
inspectors
Disturbances due to noise, vibration
More instruments needed
Centralized inspection
view room or lab inspection
Done in inspection booths
Products are brought to inspection booths and inspected
Inspection booths are maintained at required temperature
and humidity
Precision equipment and tools are available in booth
Centralized inspection –
advantages
Operators are not disturbed
Unbiased and accurate
Costly and precision instruments can be used
Documentation is easy
Easy supervision
Specialization of work
Rejection will not lead to friction between workers
centralized inspection –
disadvantages
Not suitable for heavy workpieces
Increased material handling
Time delay in corrective action
Production is affected till the workpieces are cleared by
inspection rooms
Chances of mixing defective and non defective pieces
comparison
floor inspection centralized
Inspection in shop or floor In booths
Suitable for heavy and light Suitable for light workpieces
workpieces
Less material handling material handling is more
Biased inspection unbiased inspection
Piling of workpieces near No piling of work
workstation
Documentation is difficult Documentation is easy
Precision equipments cannot be Precision equipments are used
used
Inspection – types
Key operation inspection – inspection of key point or
key process in manufacturing . Usually the key operation
is the most expensive operation where rework is very
expensive. Inspection at key point helps to avoid
unnecessary expenditure and time loss
Endurance inspection – inspection to find the life of the
product
Quality control -- areas of
application
Incoming material control – selection , procurement and stocking of right
material at right quantity to meet the quality standard established. Incoming
materials include raw materials, component parts, assemblies etc. Bad quality
materials cause wastage of material, time, manpower etc.
Process control - procedure adopted to evaluate, maintain and improve quality
standards during various stages of manufacturing. The objective is to ensure
that items produced are as per plan , finding deviations and correcting it early
etc.
Product control- process of evaluating quality of outgoing product . It includes
feedback mechanism, quality audit , complaint redressal , opinion survey,
quality analysis etc
Cost of quality
Cost to carry out quality functions in an organization . Actual
amount spent to maintain predetermined quality of the product
Measure of cost to the firm for a lack of quality .
It includes cost of prevention
cost of appraisal
cost of internal failures
cost of external failure
Failure cost
Internal failure cost –
1. scrap and rework cost
2. cost of testing, inspection , storing after rejection
3. cost due to unavoidable processing
External failure cost -
1. warranty charges
2. cost of processing complaints
3. cost of repairing
4. cost of replacement
5. failure analysis cost
Appraisal / detection cost
Cost of inspecting incoming material, in process material
and finished product
Cost of auditing
Equipment calibration cost
Cost of maintenance and purchase of inspection
equipment
Evaluation of labour and customer
Prevention cost
Cost of quality planning
Cost of product review
Cost of process control
Cost of training and education
Cost of investigation , analysis and correction of defects
Quality Assurance
QA means providing necessary confidence to consumers as well
as top management that all concerned are carrying out their job
effectively and that the product quality is as per customer
satisfaction with economy.
It includes activities such as planning required actions ,
establishing acceptance criteria, appointing qualified personnel ,
investigation of quality related problem , evaluating quality
effectiveness
QC & Inspection – comparison
Quality control Inspection
Includes QA, Quality Part of QC
development, quality
maintenance etc
Finds out whether the products
Aims at production of only
are acceptable or not
quality goods
Detection of defects
Prevention of defects
corrective action for finding
causes of poor quality No corrective action
Controls the production process Does not have any role in the
control of the process
Variability In Measurements
Variations are inevitable in nature
Inherent characteristic in any production process
Amount of variability depends on men, machine, material etc
Statistical analysis is used to examine variability
Variations are acceptable if they are within the limits
Variations are of two tyes
Variations Due to Chance Causes
Random variations
Play between nut and bolt
Non homogeneity of material
No specific reason
Very difficult to control
Negligible and avoided
variations due to assignable causes
Variations due to poor quality material , machine
condition, bad working condition, mistakes of worker,
difference between operators
Greater in magnitude
Should be readily detected and controlled
Quality Characteristics – variables
All quality characteristics which can be measured and expressed
in specific units of measurement
Continous data
Eg- length , breadth, diameter, weight, density temperature,
hardness
Variables usually have an upper and lower limit of deviation
Quality Characteristics – attributes
Characteristics which cannot be measured and expressed
in terms of specific units of measurement
Eg – color, presence of cracks in casting, surface finish
black spots in a cloth, no of defective pieces in a sample
Discrete data
Frequency distribution
Frequency is the number of times a particular measured value
repeats itself in a set of measurements
Frequency distribution is a tabulation of measured values
arranged systematically
It is a pictorial representation to know the variations in
measurement
Technique used to understand and interpret nature of variation
frequency distribution –
example
Grouped frequency
distribution & tally sheet
Frequency Plot
another example
frequency table
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Statistical Quality Control
Method of estimating the quality of the whole lot from the
quality of the sample taken from the lot
Based on the laws of chance and has a sound mathematical
basis
It applies the knowledge of statistics to production process for
assuring quality
It deals with collection, tabulation , analysis and interpretation
of data
Techniques of SQC
Frequency distribution charts
Control charts
Acceptance sampling
Special methods like correlation analysis of variance, analysis
of tolerance etc
Characteristics of frequency
distribution
CENTRAL TENDENCY – Most of the observations tend to
concentrate in the centre of the distribution . It is expressed in
three ways
Arithmetic mean
Median
Mode
Arithmetic mean
MEDIAN
When the observations are arranged in descending and
ascending order then the magnitude of the middle case is called
the median
If n observations are arranged in ascending order and n is odd
then median is (n+1) th observation
2
If the number of observations are even then median is the
average of n/2 th and n + 1 th observation
2
Mode
Value that occurs most frequently
Observed value corresponding to high point of frequency
distribution
Eg : 4,3,2,5,7,4,4,6,5,4
Mode - 4
example
Dispersion
Extent to which data is scattered about the zone of central
tendency
Measures of dispersion are
Range
Standard deviation
Variance
Range
Difference between largest and smallest observed value
Used in control charts
Simplest measure of dispersion in a sample
Standard Deviation
Most useful measure of dispersion
Root mean square value of the differences between
observations and mean
Standard deviation
example
solution
Variance
Sum of squares of deviations from the arithmetic mean divided
by number of observations
Square of Standard deviation
Comparable to moment of inertia about a centroid axis
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
ND CURVE - Characteristics
ND Curve is symmetrical about the mean value and has a bell
shape. It is designated by Mean and standard deviation
Theoretically ND Curve extends from minus infinity to plus
infinity . For practical purpose it extends from -3σ to +3σ
If the mean and standard deviation of a population is obtained
then a simple calculation will provide the probability that the
characteristic will fall with in any pair of stated values
commonly quoted limits
Patterns
Non symmetrical distribution
curve
CONTROL CHARTS
SQC – Introduced by Dr.Walter.A.Shewart - Bell telephone
laboratories
Rapid feedback on an ongoing process
It is a visual display of an inspection process for indicating
unusual behavior
Introduced in 1931
Objectives of control charts
It helps to identify defects in advance
To find whether process is in control or not
To determine whether process is capable for manufacturing as
per specification
To detect the trends in the process
To check whether the process will remain in control or it will
become out of control
Control charts- classification
Setting up of a control chart
Selecting the characteristic to be charted
Selecting the type of control chart
Deciding the central line and limits
Represent the sample as a point in the control chart
Deciding control limits and interpreting the results for taking
actions
Such as training, ensuring cooperation, review of chart etc
PREPARING MEAN Chart
Select samples at random from production ( n= 5 to 10)
Measure any quality characteristic of all the elements in the sample
Calculate mean and range for each sample
Calculate grand mean and grand range ( X and R)
Find the control limits for Mean chart
UCL = X + 3σx, σ is the standard deviation
LCL = X-3σx
UCL = X + A2 R
LCL = X-A2 R
where A2 is a constant from table corresponding to n
PREPARING MEAN Chart and
Range chart
Find the control limits for range chart
UCL = D4 R
LCL = D3 R
Construct MEAN chart with sample no on x axis and sample mean on Y
axis
Draw mean central line on the middle corresponding to grand mean and
two control limit lines below and above central line
Plot the sample points
Similarly construct range chart with grand range as middle line and the two
control limits on top and bottom
Plot the sample points
Comment on the process on the basis of the chart obtained
question
Solution
control limits
Mean chart
Range chart
Control Chart Patterns - JUMP
JUMP- Major causes
Control Chart Patterns - TREND
TREND – Major causes
Control Chart Patterns – Recurring cycles
recurring cycles – causes
Seasoning effect of incoming materials
Daily, weekly mechanical or psychological event
Periodic rotation of operators
Recurring effect of heat and temperature
universe
Recurring cycles – major causes
Large differences in material quality
Large differences in inspection methods or equipment's
Materials from two different suppliers
Two or machines in the same chart
Control chart patterns – common
causes
Out of calibration of measuring equipment
Errors in calculation
Errors in test equipments
Improper sampling
Control Chart for Attributes
Mean and range chart are used for variables
They are not capable when large number of variables are
to be measured
Cost of data collection is more
Attribute characteristics cannot be measured
Method is not economical
Types of attributes chart
Control chart for fraction defective – P chart
Control chart for defectives – Np chart
Control chart for defects/ unit - C chart
P Chart
Fraction defective can be defined as the ratio of number of
defective articles found in any inspection to the total number of
articles inspected
p = No of defects/ total number inspected
Central line in a P chart is average fraction defective
P= Total no of defectives during a period/ total no inspected
Sample no in X axis and fraction defective in Y axis
P Chart – Procedure
Record the data for each sample and find the number of
defectives in each sample
Compute fraction defective for each sample,p
Find average fraction defective P
Compute upper control limit and lower control limit for P
Chart
Draw P chart with sample no in X axis and fraction defective
in Y axis , Central line will be P
Plot each points in the chart representing fraction defective
corresponding to each sample
Standard deviation
control charts
problem
solution
control limits
control chart
QUESTION
QUESTION
100 P chart
100 P CHART
Purpose of P chart
To detect average proportion of defective articles submitted for
inspection
To find the changes in average quality level
Discover, identify and correct causes of bad quality
Discover , identify and correct the erratic cause of quality
improvement
To suggest the use of mean and range charts to diagnose
quality problems
Comparison – Mean chart with P chart
MEAN CHART P CHART
Used for Variable data Used for attribute data
Cost of collecting data is more More economical
Cost of computing, charting is more Cost is less
Suitable for critical dimension Not suitable for critical dimension
Needs training for understanding Comparatively easy to plot and
understand
Sample size is small Large sample size
Indicates assignable causes of Indicates presence of assignable
variation causes but does not indicate cause
C chart
Control chart for non conformity
Control chart for defects per piece
Control chart based on Poisson distribution
Another chart based on Poisson distribution is U chart
Used in restricted fields
Defects and defective
Any item is said to be defective , if it fails to confirm to
the specifications in any of the characteristics
Any item is said to be defective if it contains at least one
defect
In some cases number of defects in each product or in
each group of equal number of similar articles
There we use a C chart or control chart for defects
CONTROL LIMITS – C Chart
Problem
solution
solution
Control limits
C chart
