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Practical Hydraulics
and Water Resources
Engineering
THIRD EDITION
Practical Hydraulics
and Water Resources
Engineering
THIRD EDITION

Melvyn Kay

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20161021

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-6195-6 (Paperback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Kay, Melvyn. | Kay, Melvyn. Practical hydraulics.

Title: Practical hydraulics and water resources engineering / Melvyn Kay.
Other titles: Practical hydraulics
Description: Third edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Previous
edition: Practical hydraulics / Melvyn Kay (London ; New York : Taylor &
Francis, 2008). | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016027431| ISBN 9781498761956 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781498761963
(e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Hydraulics. | Hydraulic engineering.
Classification: LCC TC160 .K38 2017 | DDC 620.1/06--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016027431

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
Author xix

1 Some basic mechanics 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Dimensions and units 1
1.3 Velocity and acceleration 3
1.4 Forces 4
1.5 Friction 5
1.6 Newton’s laws of motion 5
1.6.1 Law 1: Forces cause objects to move 5
1.6.2 Law 2: Forces cause objects to accelerate 5
1.6.3 Law 3: For every force there is
always an equal and opposite force 7
1.7 Mass and weight 8
1.8 Scalar and vector quantities 9
1.8.1 Dealing with vectors 10
1.9 Work, energy and power 11
1.9.1 Work 11
1.9.2 Energy 12
1.9.3 Changing energy 13
1.9.4 Power 14
1.10 Momentum 14
1.10.1 The astronaut’s problem 19
1.10.2 Rebounding balls 19
1.11 Properties of water 19
1.11.1 Density 20
1.11.2 Relative density or specific gravity 21

v
vi Contents

1.11.3 Viscosity 22
1.11.4 Kinematic viscosity 24
1.11.5 Surface tension 24
1.11.6 Compressibility 25

2 Water standing still: hydrostatics 27

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Pressure 27
2.3 Force and pressure are different 28
2.4 Pressure and depth 28
2.5 Pressure is same in all directions 33
2.6 Hydrostatic paradox 34
2.6.1 Bucket problem 34
2.6.2 Balloon problem 35
2.7 Pressure head 36
2.8 Atmospheric pressure 37
2.8.1 Mercury barometer 40
2.9 Measuring pressure 42
2.9.1 Gauge and absolute pressures 42
2.9.2 Bourdon gauges 43
2.9.3 Piezometers 44
2.9.4 Manometers 45
2.10 Designing dams 47
2.10.1 Dam paradox 50
2.11 Forces on sluice gates 52
2.12 Archimedes principle 55
2.12.1 Floating objects 58
2.12.2 Submarine problem 59
2.12.3 Ice problem 60
2.12.4 Drowning in quicksand – myth or reality? 61
2.13 Some examples to test your understanding 63

3 When water starts to flow: hydrodynamics 65

3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Experimentation and theory 65
3.3 Hydraulic toolbox 67
3.4 Discharge and continuity 67
3.5 Energy 70
3.5.1 Pressure energy 71
3.5.2 Kinetic energy 72
 Contents vii

3.5.3 Potential energy 72

3.5.4 Total energy 73
3.6 Some useful applications of the energy equation 74
3.6.1 Pressure and elevation changes 74
3.6.2 Measuring velocity 76
3.6.3 Orifices 80
3.6.4 Pressure and velocity changes in a pipe 82
3.7 Some more energy applications 82
3.7.1 Flow through narrow openings 82
3.7.2 How aeroplanes fly 87
3.7.3 Airflow between buildings 88
3.7.4 Fluid injectors 89
3.7.5 A very useful application 89
3.8 Momentum 89
3.9 Real fluids 91
3.9.1 Taking account of energy losses 91
3.9.2 Cavitation 92
3.9.3 Boundary layers 93
3.9.3.1 The Earth’s boundary layer 94
3.10 Drag forces 96
3.10.1 Stopping supertankers 99
3.11 Eddy shedding 100
3.12 Making balls swing 100
3.13 Successful stone-skipping 103
3.14 Some examples to test your understanding 104

4 Pipes 107
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Typical pipe flow problem 107
4.3 Formula to link energy loss and pipe size 109
4.3.1 Laminar and turbulent flow 109
4.3.2 Formula for turbulent flow 111
4.4 The λ story 112
4.4.1 Smooth and rough pipes 113
4.4.1.1 Physical explanation 115
4.5 Hydraulic gradient 116
4.6 Energy loss at pipe fittings 118
4.7 Siphons 118
4.7.1 How they work 119
4.7.2 Air valves 120
4.7.3 Some practical siphons 120
viii Contents

4.7.4 Siphon limits 121

4.8 Selecting pipe sizes in practice 121
4.8.1 Using hydraulic design charts 126
4.8.2 Sizing pipes for future demand 129
4.9 Pipe networks 132
4.10 Measuring discharge in pipes 134
4.11 Momentum in pipes 140
4.11.1 Pipe bends 143
4.12 Pipe materials 144
4.12.1 Specifying pipes 144
4.12.2 Materials 144
4.13 Pipe fittings 146
4.14 Water hammer 149
4.15 Surge 152
4.16 Some examples to test your understanding 153

5 Channels 155
5.1 Introduction 155
5.2 Pipes or channels? 155
5.3 Laminar and turbulent flow 156
5.4 Using the hydraulic tools 157
5.4.1 Continuity 158
5.4.2 Energy 159
5.4.3 Using energy and continuity 161
5.4.4 Taking account of energy losses 164
5.5 Uniform flow 165
5.5.1 Channel shapes 166
5.5.2 Factors affecting flow 168
5.5.2.1 Area and wetted perimeter 168
5.5.2.2 Hydraulic radius 168
5.5.2.3 Slope 169
5.5.2.4 Roughness 169
5.5.3 Channel design formulae 170
5.5.3.1 Chezy formula 170
5.5.3.2 Manning formula 172
5.5.4 Using Manning’s formula 172
5.5.5 Practical design 176
5.6 Non-uniform flow: gradually varied 177
5.7 Non-uniform flow: rapidly varied 178
5.7.1 Flow behaviour 179
5.7.1.1 Subcritical flow 179
 Contents ix

5.7.1.2 Supercritical flow 181

5.7.1.3 General rules 181
5.7.1.4 Spotting the difference 182
5.7.1.5 Airflow analogy 182
5.7.1.6 Back to water 184
5.7.1.7 Finger test 186
5.7.2 Froude number 186
5.7.3 Specific energy: a ‘key to open a lock’ 187
5.7.3.1 Is the flow subcritical or supercritical? 192
5.7.4 Critical depth 196
5.7.5 Critical flow 198
5.7.6 Flow transitions 199
5.7.6.1 Subcritical to supercritical flow 199
5.7.6.2 Supercritical to subcritical
flow (hydraulic jump) 200
5.7.6.3 Creating a hydraulic jump 201
5.7.6.4 Calculating energy losses 202
5.8 Secondary flows 203
5.8.1 Channel bends 205
5.8.2 Siting river off-takes 205
5.8.3 Bridge piers 205
5.8.4 Vortices at sluice gates 206
5.8.5 Tea cups 207
5.9 Sediment transport 207
5.9.1 Channels carrying sediment 208
5.9.2 Threshold of movement 209
5.9.3 Calculating sediment transport 210
5.10 Some examples to test your understanding 210

6 Hydraulic structures for channels 213

6.1 Introduction 213
6.2 Orifice structures 215
6.2.1 Free and drowned flow 217
6.3 Weirs and flumes 217
6.4 Sharp-crested weirs 218
6.4.1 Rectangular weirs 219
6.4.2 Vee-notch weirs 219
6.4.3 Some practical points 219
6.5 Solid weirs 220
6.5.1 Determining the height of a weir 224
6.5.2 Being sure of critical flow 225
x Contents

6.5.3 Broad-crested weirs 226

6.5.4 Crump weirs 226
6.5.5 Round-crested weirs 227
6.5.6 Drowned flow 227
6.6 Flumes 228
6.6.1 Parshall flumes 228
6.6.2 WSC flumes 228
6.6.3 Combination weir flumes 230
6.7 Discharge measurement 230
6.8 Discharge control 230
6.9 Water level control 232
6.10 Energy dissipators 233
6.10.1 Stilling basins 233
6.10.2 Drop structures 233
6.11 Siphons 235
6.11.1 Black-water siphons 235
6.11.2 Air-regulated siphons 237
6.12 Culverts 239
6.13 Some examples to test your understanding 242

7 Pumps 243
7.1 Introduction 243
7.2 Positive displacement pumps 243
7.2.1 Typical pumps 244
7.2.2 Treadle pumps 246
7.2.3 The heart: an important pump 247
7.3 Roto-dynamic pumps 248
7.3.1 Centrifugal pumps 248
7.3.2 Some pump history 250
7.3.3 Axial flow pumps 251
7.3.4 Mixed flow pumps 252
7.4 Pumping pressure 252
7.4.1 Suction lift 252
7.4.2 Delivery 254
7.4.3 Pumping head 255
7.4.4 Cavitation 256
7.5 Energy for pumping 258
7.6 Power for pumping 259
7.6.1 Efficiency 262
7.7 Roto-dynamic pump performance 265
 Contents xi

7.7.1 Discharge and head 267

7.7.2 Discharge and power 267
7.7.3 Discharge and efficiency 268
7.8 Choosing the right kind of pump 268
7.9 Matching a centrifugal pump with a pipeline 269
7.10 Connecting pumps in series and in parallel 276
7.11 Variable speed pumps 279
7.12 Operating pumps 281
7.12.1 Centrifugal pumps 281
7.12.2 Axial flow pumps 282
7.13 Power units 282
7.13.1 Internal combustion engines 282
7.13.2 Electric motors 282
7.14 Surge in pumping mains 283
7.15 Turbines 285
7.16 Some examples to test your understanding 287

8 Water resources engineering 289

8.1 Harnessing the forces of nature 289
8.2 Making choices in a complex world 289
8.3 Water supply engineering 292
8.3.1 Typical water supply scheme 293
8.3.2 Unconventional water supplies 295
8.3.2.1 Wastewater 295
8.3.2.2 Desalination 296
8.3.3 Past and future water supplies 296
8.4 Wastewater treatment and disposal 297
8.4.1 Learning to clean it up 297
8.4.2 In developing countries 298
8.4.3 Sewage is… 299
8.4.4 Typical water treatment works 299
8.4.5 Civil and chemical engineers working together 302
8.5 Irrigation engineering 302
8.5.1 Irrigation’s beginnings 302
8.5.2 Irrigation today 303
8.5.3 Crops needs lots of water 304
8.5.4 Irrigation schemes 304
8.5.5 Methods of irrigation 307
8.5.5.1 Surface irrigation 307
8.5.5.2 Sprinkler irrigation 307
xii Contents

8.5.5.3 Trickle irrigation 308

8.5.5.4 Which method? 308
8.5.6 Managing irrigation systems 309
8.5.7 Irrigation: the downside 311
8.6 River engineering 311
8.6.1 Modelling rivers 314
8.6.2 Protecting the aquatic environment 314

9 Water resources planning and management 317

9.1 The water challenge 317
9.2 Some basic hydrology 319
9.2.1 The hydrological cycle 320
9.2.2 Water basins: the ideal planning unit 321
9.2.2.1 Open and closed basins 322
9.2.2.2 Approaches to basin management 323
9.2.3 Selecting ‘design years’ 323
9.2.4 ‘Easy’ and ‘difficult’ hydrology 325
9.2.5 Hydrographs 326
9.2.6 Climate change 327
9.3 Do we have enough water? 327
9.3.1 How much water do we use? 327
9.3.2 How much do we need? 328
9.3.3 Do we have enough? 329
9.3.4 Strategies for matching supply and demand 329
9.4 Water footprints 330
9.4.1 Green and blue water 331
9.4.2 Virtual water 332
9.5 Planning water resources 333
9.5.1 Traditional approach 333
9.5.2 Integrated water resources management 334
9.5.3 Water security 335
9.6 Water myths 336
9.6.1 Myth I: Water resources are finite 337
9.6.2 Myth II: Water use and consumption are the same 337
9.6.3 Myth III: Increasing water use
efficiency saves water 338
9.6.3.1 Individual efficiency versus
basin efficiency 338
9.6.3.2 What can we conclude from this? 339
9.6.3.3 Improving ‘efficiency’ for whom? 340
9.6.3.4 Domestic water systems 340
 Contents xiii

9.6.4 Myth IV: Wastewater is the ‘new’ water resource 341

9.6.5 Myth V: Societies should only
use water they can replace 342

10 ‘Bathtub’ hydraulics 343

Further reading 349
Index 351
Preface

Who wants to know about hydraulics? When I asked that question as I was
finalising the second edition of this book in 2007, it was my 6-year-old daugh-
ter who wanted to know why water swirls as it goes down the plug hole when
she has a bath and why it always seems to go in the same direction. She is now
16 and has developed other interests! But many people from a wide range of
backgrounds are now engaging in careers linked to water and water use: in
public water supply, agriculture, irrigation, energy, environment and sustain-
able development. Those of you involved in some aspect of water management
will need a good understanding of basic hydraulics to do your job. So this
book is aimed at you. There is no need for you to become a hydraulic engineer
but you are most likely to work with engineers, and so you will need to ask
the right questions, and know when you are being given sensible answers. You
will need to understand how engineers set about the vital role of harnessing
and controlling water. This book sets out to explain how water flows in pipes,
channels and pumps, and how it is controlled and managed.
Most traditional hydraulics books are written by engineers for engineers
and so they tend to assume a strong background in maths and physics and
are rather off putting for those who are not from an engineering back-
ground. This book is still written by an engineer, but for many years, I
taught hydraulics to young professionals from a wide range of backgrounds
and from this I have developed what I think is a more ‘novel’ approach
to understanding hydraulics, which is simple and practical. I have tried to
avoid (most of) the maths and physics that many of you may not be so keen
on. Instead, I use lots of ‘stories’ that I have gathered over many years to help
you quickly grasp important water engineering principles and practices.
It would have been easier to write a ‘simple’, descriptive book on hydraulics
by omitting the more complex ideas of water flow but this would have been
simplicity at the expense of reality. It would be like writing a cookbook with
recipes rather than examining why certain things happen when ingredients
are mixed together. So I have tried to cater for various tastes. At one level, this
book is descriptive and provides a qualitative understanding of hydraulics. At
another level, it is more rigorous and quantitative. These are the more mathe-
matical bits for those who wish to go that extra step. It was the physicist, Lord

xv
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