MNRUT309 Fundamentals of Instrument Technology Toc H Institute of Science and Technology

MODULE 1
Syllabus: Introduction to Robotics and Automation:- laws of robot, brief history of robotics,
robotic system components, safety measures in robotics, Types of robots: Manipulator, Legged
robot, wheeled robot, aerial robots, Industrial robots, humanoids, Cobots, Autonomous robots
and Swarm robots, Robotics Applications
Text books/ References
[1]. Robotics Technology and flexible automation, S.R. Deb
[2]. Industrial Robots - Technology, Programming and Applications, Mikell P. Groover et. al

Introduction to Robotics and Automation [1]

Robotics is the intersection of science, engineering and technology that produces
machines, called robots, that replicate or substitute for human actions. Robots perform basic
and repetitive tasks with greater efficiency and accuracy than humans, making them ideal for
industries like manufacturing. However, the introduction of artificial intelligence in robotics
has given robots the ability to handle increasingly complex situations in various industries. The
branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of
robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information
processing is Robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the
place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans
in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition.
In 1980, the Robot Institute of America (RIA) came up with the following definition:
A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks. Today, this definition would be considered too restrictive, as it reflects the
concentration of the RIA on robot manipulators on an assembly line. Robotics has broadened
over the years in many ways: to include mobility platforms, to address the service sector as
well as the manufacturing sector, and to incorporate man-machine interactions, not just
autonomy, in tele-robotic and virtual reality systems. For this reason, more convenient and
broader definitions have emerged:
For this reason, more convenient and broader definitions have emerged:
▪ A machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially
one programmable by a computer. "half of all American robots are making cars or
trucks"
▪ A robot is a device that operates with some degree of autonomy, usually under computer
control.
A robot can be static (industrial robot or manipulator) as shown in Fig 1.1 or mobile, as
shown in Fig 1.2. A mobile robot can be any form of vehicle, such as a motorized cart, a car,
a plane, or a submersible, and in the case of land navigation it can have wheels, tracks, or legs.
The main goal of a mobile robot is to transport between two or more points under the guidance
of on-board sensors and intelligent controllers. Industrial robots usually consist of a jointed
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arm (multi-linked manipulator) and an end effector that is attached to a fixed surface. The arm-
like structure of an industrial robot is known as a robot manipulator. This component is
responsible for completing the tasks the robot is programmed to perform. Also known as a
robot arm, the manipulator mounts to the robot body and consists of multiple links and joints.

Figure 1.1 Robotic Manipulators Figure 1.2 Mobile robots

A robot is formally defined by International Standard of Organization (ISO) as a
reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks. Each robot has a different level of autonomy. These levels range from human-controlled
bots that carry out tasks to fully-autonomous bots that perform tasks without any external
influences. In terms of etymology, the word ‘robot’ is derived from the Czech word ‘robota’,
which means “forced labour.”
There is a growing demand for new consumer products in today’s market. The
development of a new product typically involves changes in design. Manufacturing such low-
volume, customized products using dedicated machines or fixed equipment becomes
economically prohibitive due to the high cost of changeovers. To address this challenge, a new
system of workpiece classification has been developed. Traditionally, products or components
have been identified by their functional requirements and produced using either a product
layout or a process layout. In the new system, workpieces are grouped based on similarities in
geometric shape, dimensions, and technological requirements. These components are classified
and coded accordingly, and those belonging to the same category are processed at a common
workstation. As a result, components with different functional roles but similar manufacturing
characteristics are grouped into homogeneous families. This allows for the design of improved
machines, tooling layouts, and a more efficient ‘cell system’ of production.
This approach of classifying operations into similar process groups and codifying workpieces
is known as Group Technology (GT). GT plays a vital role in discrete manufacturing,
particularly in batch production.

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Laws of Robotics [1]

Isaac Asimov dealing on the subject of robotics framed “Three Laws of Robotics”, which were
presented in fictional terms to establish an ethical framework for interactions between humans
and robots:
First Law: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow one to come to
harm.
This law places the highest priority on human safety and ensures that robots must never
act in ways that could directly or indirectly harm people. For example, if a robot sees a person
in danger, it must try to help or intervene. Even if the robot is given a command that might
cause harm, it must reject or override the command to protect the human. This law suggests
that robots should be programmed with decision-making capabilities that can predict and avoid
scenarios that lead to human injury, either through their actions or negligence. It is a law of
absolute priority and forms the moral backbone of robot behaviour.
Second Law: A robot must always obey human beings, except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law.
This law supports the notion that robots are meant to serve humans and must be
responsive to instructions. However, this obedience is conditional—if a command from a
human would lead to harm (and thus violate the First Law), the robot is required to ignore or
refuse the instruction. This introduces a hierarchy of decision-making and shows that human
safety is more important than mere obedience. In a real-world scenario, this principle translates
into robots needing smart control logic to evaluate whether following an instruction poses any
danger, and if so, taking corrective action or stopping altogether.
Third Law: A robot must protect itself from harm unless that is in conflict with the First or the
Second laws.
This law introduces the idea of robot self-preservation, which is essential for continuity
of operations, especially in environments where repair or replacement may be difficult. For
example, in space or hazardous environments, it is crucial that robots avoid situations that could
damage them. However, they cannot protect themselves at the expense of a human or
disobeying a legitimate human command. A robot might choose to risk its own structure or
system if that’s the only way to save a human life or obey a critical instruction that aligns with
the first two laws.
Zeroth Law: A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to come to
harm.
This law expands the scope from individual humans to the collective safety of humanity
as a whole. It creates a deep ethical dilemma, where a robot may need to choose between the
safety of one person and the well-being of society at large. This law introduces concepts like
long-term consequences, environmental impact, and global ethics into robotic decision-
making. For example, in a situation where a robot must choose between saving one individual
or preventing a large-scale disaster, the Zeroth Law would demand it choose the greater good.

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Brief History of Robotics [1],[2]

Robotics as a concept goes back to ancient times. The ancient Greeks combined
automation and engineering to create the Antikythera, a handheld device that predicted
eclipses. Centuries later, Leonardo Da Vinci designed a mechanical knight now known as
“Leonardo’s Robot.” But it was the rise of manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution that
highlighted the need for widespread automation.
A brief chronology of the major events in the history of industrial are:

1720 In the wake of the industrial revolution the first programmable loom controlled
by punch cards was developed in France.
1801 Card programmable Jacquard loom was introduced in France for mass
production.
1822 Babbage completed the difference engine for automatic computation of tables in
England.
1830 The Automat, a cam programmable lathe was invented by Spencer in the USA.
1892 Motor operated crane with a gripper for removing ingots from a furnace was
patented by Babbitt in the USA.
1921 Karel Capek's play, R.U.R. was staged in London when the word robot was
popularized.
1938/39 A programmable paint-spraying machine was developed by Pollard in the USA.
Spray guns movable through predetermined paths were developed by Roselund
also in the USA.
1944 Howard Aiken developed the Mark 1 computer, an electro-mechanical automatic
sequence control calculator, a joint venture of IBM and Harvard, at Harvard.
1946 Eckert and Mauchly developed the ENIAC, the first large electronic computer,
at the University of Pennsylvania, in collaboration with the US Army.
1947 A general-purpose analogue storage device with Magnetic Process control was
developed by Devol in the USA. Servomechanisms Lab was opened at MIT,
Massachusetts, USA.
1948 "Cybernetics"-An integrated Concept of communication and control (feedback)
was introduced by Norbert Weiner.
1951 A general-purpose digital program storage device for controlling Automatic
Machine Tools was developed by Lippel in the USA. A remote controlled
teleoperator with an articulated arm called Electrical Manipulation Device was
developed by Goertz, under the auspices of the US Atomic Energy Commission
1952 IBM's first commercial computer, the 701, was marketed. The first NC machine
tool was developed jointly by the MIT Servomechanism Lab and the US Air
Force.
1954 Another remote controlled teleoperator with an articulated arm called Remote
Station Manipulator was developed by Bergsland. The first robot with point-to-
point control and an electronic playback memory was developed by Devol in
the USA.

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1956 The idea of Artificial Intelligence was floated at the Dartmouth Conference.

1957 Cam programmable "pick and place" robot was developed by Browe the Planet
Corporation in the USA.
1959 First commercially available robot was sold by Planet Corporation, USA

The Unimate robot was developed from Devol's original device. First mobile,
1960 two-armed manipulator remotely controlled by an operator was built by Huges
Aircraft to work in radioactive environment.
1962/ 63 Devol developed a "teachable" mechanical program-controlled system
providing a quick and accurate way of making robot programs. He coordinated
a robot and conveyor line and introduced a micromanipulator as well as a
force-sensing system for his robots.
1964 Devol developed continuous path control for robots. Remington Rand released
the UMAC control, the first commercially available general-purpose controller.
1964-67 Different Robotics research labs were established at MIT, Stanford Research
Institute, Stanford, and the University of Edinburgh.
1966 Cincinatti Milacron developed Direct Numerical Control of Machine Tools.
1968- 71 The first and second versions of the SHAKEY-an "intelligent" mobile robot
were built at Stanford Research Institute.
1968 A robot controlled by a general purpose PDP-6 computer was built by Max
Ernst at MIT.
1968- 70 Scheinman built his first hydraulically powered arm at Stanford and the first
electrically powered arm at MIT
1971 "Structured Light" vision system was developed at Stanford and IBM. WAVE
the first robot programming language to automatically plan smooth trajectories
and which could use rudimentary force and touch sensing to control a
manipulator was developed at Stanford.
1972 Force Vector Assembly Concept-using forces as inputs to a servo controller to
guide parts assembly was developed at Charies Stark Draper Labs, in Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
1973 Device for controlling automation along a predetermined path-the control system
for the T3, the first commercially available mini-computer controlled robot was
developed at Cincinatti Milacron. First computer integrated assembly robot was
developed at Stanford.
1974 First version of AL-a robot programming language for real-time control of
concurrent multiple devices with sensory/motor control was developed at
Stanford. Three-legged walking machine was built at the University of
Wisconsin. Scheinman developed First Vicarm robot arm controlled by a
minicomputer. Olivetti built a minicomputer-controlled robot.

1975 The LSI-11 microprocessor was commercialized by Digital Equipment

Corporation.
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1976 Space hunting of robots started Viking 1 robot rover, built by NASA, landed on
Mars. First Scheinman arm robot controlled by a LSI-11 microprocessor was
built by Vicarm.
1977 Al-Stanford Robot Programming Language was completed by Schamano and
Taylor. Vision module was developed at Stanford Research Institute and
subsequently commercialized by Machine Intelligence Corporation.
1978 First PUMA prototype, based on Scheinman's MIT model arm was built for
General Motors.
1979 First version of ACRONYM-a vision system using "reasoning about geometry'
was developed at Stanford.
1980 The largest academic robot lab in the US. the Robotics Institute at Carnegie
Mellon was established. First robot to pick randomly stacked connecting rods
out of a bin was developed at the University or Rhode Island.

1981 Direct drive manipulator using rare earth motors eliminating mechanical
linkages was developed at Carnegie Mellon by Asada and Kanede.
1983- 84 Southerland's hexapod of Carnegie Mellon University -the first man-carrying
computer-controlled walking machine by Raibert (1983) and Southerland and
Ullner (1984). BIPER-4-A two-legged walking machine designed by Miura-
Shimoyana.
1986 LEGO and MIT Media Lab collaborate to bring the first LEG0-based educational
product.
1989 Genghis, a walking robot, was developed at MIT.
1990 ABB of Switzerland acquires Cincinnati Milacron.
1992 Dr. J. Adler came up with the concept of a Cyberknife, a robot that images the
patient with X-rays for tumor and plans for a right dose of radiation.
1993 Carnegie Mellon University developed an eight-legged walking robot for
Antarctica: Seiko Epson develops a microrobot, called Monsieur.
1994 Carnegie Mellon University developed DANTA-Il robot that descended into
volcano, Mt. Spurr to sample volcanic gases.
1995 A surgical robotic system was developed in collaboration with SRI, IBM, and
MIT.
1996 A Robotuna fish robot was developed by David Barrett at MIT. The University
of South Florida, Tampa, USA, developed Gastrobot, a robot that digests organic
mass to produce CO, used later for power. This engine is known as 'Chew Chew'.
1997 G. Kasparov loses to IBM's Deep Blue Supercomputer in Chess. NASA's
Pathfinder Mission, the Robotic Rover Sejourner lands on Mars.
1998 MIT starts work on Kismit Robot that can mime the emotional range of a baby.
1999 Sony builds Albo, K9 the next generation intended tor consumer market and
reacting on sounds. Personal Robots releases the Cye robot performing a variety
of household chores.
2000 Honda builds a humanoid robot ASHIMO, walking like a human being and
reacting.
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2001 LEGO releases the Mindstorms Unimate Builders set.

2003 Sony releases third generation robotic pet
2004 Robert rover ‘Spirit’ lands on Mars and ‘Opportunity’ safely lands on Meridium
Planum.
2005 Cornell University developed the first self-replicating robot.

Safety Measures in Robotics

Safety in robotics is critical to prevent injury to humans, damage to equipment, and ensure
smooth operation. The key safety measures include:
1. Risk Assessment and Hazard Identification
• Evaluate all potential risks before robot deployment.
• Identify hazards like moving parts, high voltage, heat, or sharp tools.
• Classify zones into safe, restricted, and hazardous areas.
2. Safety Sensors and Devices
• Proximity sensors, limit switches, light curtains, and emergency stop buttons are used
to detect and respond to unsafe conditions.
• Vision systems may be integrated to detect human presence.
3. Physical Barriers and Fencing
• Fixed guards, cages, and barriers prevent human access to robot workspaces.
• Interlock systems stop the robot when a door or gate is opened.
4. Emergency Stop Systems (E-Stop)
• Must be easily accessible and present at multiple locations around the robot.
• Immediately shuts down robot motion and power in an emergency.
5. Collaborative Robot (Cobot) Safety
• Cobots are designed to safely work alongside humans.
• Use force-limited joints, soft end-effectors, and speed restrictions to avoid injury.
6. Safe Operating Speeds
• Robots are often operated at reduced speed during teaching or maintenance.
• Speed limits reduce impact force in case of collision.
7. Redundancy and Fail-Safe Design
• Critical systems (e.g., brakes, power supplies) include backups to prevent failure.
• On fault detection, systems move to a safe state automatically.
8. Safety Training and PPE

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• Operators and maintenance personnel must be trained in safety protocols.

• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, goggles, or helmets as
needed.
9. Regular Maintenance and Inspection
• Periodic inspection of sensors, actuators, and safety systems ensures reliability.
• Faulty parts must be repaired or replaced immediately.
10. Compliance with Standards
• Adhere to safety standards such as:
o ISO 10218 (Industrial robot safety)
o ISO/TS 15066 (Collaborative robot safety)
o ANSI/RIA R15.06, etc.
11. Use of Safety Mats
• Pressure-sensitive mats detect human presence near robots.
• Automatically stop or disable the robot to prevent accidents.
• Useful in collaborative or open-access workspaces.
• Safety mats are pressure-sensitive surfaces placed around robotic work areas.
• When a person steps on the mat, it detects the pressure and sends a signal to stop or
slow down the robot.
• They act as non-intrusive safety zones to prevent accidental human entry during robot
operation.
• Mats are connected to a safety relay or controller, ensuring reliable shutdown if
triggered.
• They are durable, slip-resistant, and available in various sizes to cover entry points or
perimeters.

12. Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) Procedures

• Standard safety practice during maintenance.
• Ensures power is disconnected and cannot be turned on accidentally.
13. Human Presence Detection via Vision Systems
• Cameras with AI identify human shapes and movements.
• Robot slows or stops when a person is detected nearby.

The use of robots is to humanize the workplace. Human operators working in hazardous
environment can be protected by proper use of robots. The robots may pose dangers to the
human operators during
i)Programming
ii)Operating, and

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iii) Maintenance of the robots

a) The operators engaged in robot programming must take precautions in testing the
programs at the lowest speed and should use stop buttons in case of emergency.
b) The important safety feature remains in the design layouts of work cells. While laying
out the cells, care should be taken to properly ground the electrical cables and arrange
hydraulic or pneumatic lines in the proper way.
c) During operations, proper guards and helmets should be used by the operators to avoid
physical injury.
The following safety rules and measures, if followed should protect the human operatives from
accidents.
1. A fencing around the work cell in which the robot is interacting with the peripheral
machine should be arranged. There should be gates to have an access or an exit from
the work cell. The gates may be provided with an interlocking device so that if the gate
is opened, the action of the robot is interrupted. However, safety sensors may be used
to make the safety foolproof.
The figure 1.3, shown below, illustrates the locations where the safety sensors have to be used
in a robotic work cell. There are 3 distinct zones.
• The first is the periphery or area of fencing (Zone A).
• The second is the area in the work cell (Zone B).
• The third is the area of robot envelope (hatched section, Zone C)
Pressure mats on the floor are excellent sensing devices to provide safety in areas A and B.
Anyone standing on the mat will activate the sensors to interrupt the robotic action. Pressure
mats sometimes give warning alarms also. The robot arm and wrist may be provided with a
proximity sensor to sense and detect the range in case of intrusion by anyone within the robotic
work envelope. Speed monitoring to a reduced and safer level and principles of obstacle
avoidance may follow the detection of intrusion by the sensors so that the robot motion may
be diverted to avoid direct collision. Light sensors with photo sensitive devices may also be
used to detect the presence of a human operative interrupting the light beam if he enters into
the zones of the work cell.

Fig 1.3: Safety sensors to be located at different zones

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Safety is an important issue and should not be overlooked. Proper training and education in the
safety rules should be undertaken to increase awareness and avoid accidents.

Robotic System Components [1]

A robot has many components which include:
(1) A base fixed or mobile.
(2) A manipulator arm with several degrees of freedom (DOF).
(3) An end-effector or gripper holding a part or a tool.
(4) Drives or actuators causing the manipulator arm or end-effector move in a space.
(5) Controller with hardware and software support for giving commands to the drives.
(6) Sensors to feedback the information foe subsequent actions of the arm or gripper well as
to interact with the environment in which the robot is working.
(7) Interfaces connecting the robotic sub systems to the external world.
A robot has some specific objective. It may picking up and placing the
workpieces. It may be employed to interact with and work load a lathe, a milling machine or
any equipment, or it may assembly work. To accomplish the job, a robot must have a suitable
manipulator arm with specified coordinate systems to attain a designed reach in the working
space. It should have a suitable gripper to match the geometry of the workpiece to be handled;
a suitable control system with or without servo mechanisms for sending signals to the drives,
or permitting storage of programmes and data for desired path planning with adequate speed
and good accuracy. The robot may have some sensors to feed-back information for modifying
the motion or path. The controller is provided with interfacing units connected to external
equipment in the outside world. The robotic system is shown in Fig 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Robotic system

1. Base: Fixed or Movable

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2. Manipulator:
A robotic manipulator arm consists of several separate links, making a chain. The
manipulator is located relative to the ground on either a fixed base or on a movable base.
The manipulator arm has a free-end where an end-effector, gripper, or sometimes a
specialized tool holder (for holding, say, a welding gun) or any powered device (say, a drill)
is attached.
❖ Links are rigid members between joints
❖ Joints – help the links to travel in different kinds of movements. Robotic joint is similar
to a human joint. Joints provide a degree of freedom. Joints can be classified into 5
types
a) Rotational(R) Joint: rotary motion along the axis
b) Linear(L) Joint: Both translational and sliding movements
c)Twisting (T) Joint: twisting motion
d)Orthogonal(O) Joint: Input and output links are perpendicular to each other
e) Revolving(V) Joint: rotation motion
3. Robot End-effectors
The robot end-effector is the gripper or end-of-arm tooling mounted on the wrist of the
robot manipulator arm. A robot performs a variety of tasks for which various tooling
and special grippers are required to be designed. A robot manipulator is flexible and
adaptable, but its end-effector is task-specific.
Example: A gripper designed for picking up a tool to be fitted to a CNC machine tool
is not suitable for welding a railway wagon.
The wide range of gripping methods includes
a) Mechanical clamping: Use hooking or lifting mechanisms and mechanisms for
scooping or ladling powders, molten metal, or plastics
b) Magnetic gripping: Forging and metal working industry. Magnetic grippers may be
employed for the transfer of steel sheets or chips.
c) Vacuum (suction) gripping: Vacuum cups may be used for the transfer of sheets of
glass, plastic, or thin sheets of paper.

(a). Mechanical clamper (b) Magnetic gripper (c) Vacuum gripper

Figure 1.5: Types of grippers
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4. Drivers or Actuators
Actuators are the mechanical components that allow the robot to move or perform
physical actions. Actuators are the “muscles” of the robot.
Types of Actuators:
(i) Electrical Actuators: These are the most commonly used in mobile and small robots.
a. DC motors: - provides continuous rotation and is simple to control.
b. Stepper motors: - move in discrete steps, offering precise control over position.
c. Servo motors: - rotate to a specific angle and are used in jointed robotic arms or
pan-tilt camera systems.
(ii) Hydraulic Actuators: These use pressurized fluids to generate motion and are used in
large robots needing high force, like excavating robots or humanoids.

(iii) Pneumatic Actuators: This use compressed air to create motion and is used in light-
duty robots where smooth and fast movements are required.
5. Controller
The controller is the brain of the robot. It processes input from sensors, makes decisions
using algorithms or logic, and sends commands to actuators. The controller also ensures safety,
checks for errors, handles timing, and allows the robot to carry out complex sequences of tasks
autonomously or semi-autonomously. Controllers can be programmed using high-level
languages like Python, C++, or through real-time operating systems.
Types of Controllers:
• Microcontrollers – Small embedded systems like Arduino, suitable for simple robots
such as line followers or obstacle avoiders.
• Single-Board Computers (SBCs) – Boards like Raspberry Pi, BeagleBone, or
NVIDIA Jetson Nano are capable of running a full operating system. They are used
for advanced robotics involving image processing or AI.
• Industrial PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) – These are used in industrial
automation settings for robust and reliable control of large robotic arms and assembly
lines.
• Robot Operating System (ROS) –ROS is a middleware software framework that
connects all robotic components (sensors, actuators, planning nodes) and allows
communication between them. It is widely used in both research and industry.
6. Sensors
They gather data from the environment or the robot’s body and convert it into electrical
signals for processing. Sensors allow a robot to detect obstacles, measure distances, determine
orientation, assess temperature, recognize objects, and interact safely and accurately with the
environment. Without sensors, a robot would be blind, deaf, and unaware of its position or
movement.

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Figure 1.6: Types of sensors

7. Interfaces
Communication interfaces allow the robot to exchange information with external
systems, operators, or other robots. This is essential for remote monitoring, real-time control,
data logging, and cloud interaction. Communication can be either wired or wireless depending
on the application and environment.

Types of Communication:

1. Wired Communication
• USB and Serial (UART, RS232): Used in small robots for debugging and direct
control.
• CAN Bus and Ethernet: High-speed, reliable connections used in autonomous
vehicles and industry.
2. Wireless Communication
• Wi-Fi: Enables remote control and data access over the internet.
• Bluetooth: Suitable for short-range, low-energy communication (used in hobby
robotics).
• ZigBee and LoRa: Low-power wireless technologies used in swarm robotics or
large-scale sensor networks.

Types of Robotics
Robots come in various types, each designed for specific tasks, environments, and
functionalities. Some common types of robots include:
1. Manipulator Robot
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Manipulator robots are one of the most common types used in industrial and research
settings and is shown in fig. 1.7. A manipulator typically consists of a fixed base and a series
of jointed links and actuated arms that provide motion and flexibility, similar to a human arm.
These robots can perform tasks such as lifting, holding, welding, assembling, or painting,
especially in manufacturing environments. The structure of a manipulator usually includes a
shoulder, elbow, and wrist configuration, and is controlled by motors and actuators at each
joint. The motion can be linear or rotational, depending on the joint type. The final part of a
manipulator is the end-effector, which may be a gripper, tool, or welding head. Manipulators
are designed with high precision and repeatability, making them ideal for repetitive, dangerous,
or high-precision industrial tasks.

Figure 1.7: Manipulator Robot

2. Legged Robots
Legged robots are designed to walk, climb, or run using mechanical legs instead of wheels.
These robots are specifically built for navigating complex terrains where wheels may not
function efficiently, such as rocky landscapes, forests, or stairs. Depending on the number of
legs, they may be classified as bipedal (two legs), quadrupedal (four legs), hexapodal (six legs),
and is shown in Fog. 1.8. Bipedal robots like humanoids require complex balancing algorithms
and sensors such as gyroscopes and IMUs to walk stably. Quadrupeds like Boston Dynamics’
"Spot" robot are highly stable and can walk over uneven surfaces with excellent adaptability.
Legged locomotion mimics biological movement and is often studied in bio-inspired robotics
to create robots that can access disaster sites or move in unstructured environments.

Figure 1.8: Legged Robots

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3. Wheeled Robots
Wheeled robots are among the simplest and most energy-efficient mobile robots. They use
wheels for locomotion and are commonly seen in logistics, surveillance, cleaning, and
educational robotics and is shown in Fig. 1.9. The number and arrangement of wheels vary
depending on the desired maneuverability—common types include differential drive (2
wheels), tricycle (2 wheels + caster), and omnidirectional robots (with omni wheels). These
robots can move faster and more smoothly on flat surfaces compared to legged robots.
However, their mobility becomes limited on rough terrains. Wheeled robots are ideal for
warehouse automation, delivery bots, and indoor navigation due to their low energy
consumption, ease of control, and relatively low cost.

Figure 1.9: Wheeled Robot

4. Aerial Robots
Aerial robots, commonly known as drones or UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles), are
flying robots that can hover, navigate, and perform aerial operations autonomously or by
remote control. They are equipped with propellers or rotors that provide lift and
maneuverability. The most common type is the quadcopter (shown in Fig 1.10), which uses
four rotors for vertical take-off and precise motion. Aerial robots are widely used in areas
like aerial photography, agriculture, environmental monitoring, surveillance, disaster
management, and package delivery. Equipped with cameras, GPS modules, and sensors,
these robots can access places that are difficult or dangerous for humans to reach. Advanced
drones also incorporate AI for autonomous navigation and obstacle avoidance.

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Figure 1.10: Aerial robots

5. Industrial Robots

Industrial robots are specialized manipulators or robotic arms that are heavily used in
manufacturing and production industries, shown in Fig 1.11. These robots are designed to
perform tasks such as welding, painting, assembly, palletizing, cutting, packaging, and
inspection. They are typically stationary and programmed to carry out high-precision, repetitive
actions with great speed and reliability. Industrial robots are found in sectors like automotive
manufacturing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and metal processing. They are designed to
handle dangerous, dirty, or monotonous tasks that may not be safe or suitable for human
workers. These robots are often enclosed within safety cages and programmed using teach
pendants or PLC systems.

Figure 1.11: Industrial Robots

6. Humanoid Robots

Humanoid robots are designed to resemble and mimic human appearance and behavior.
These robots typically have a head, two arms, a torso, and two legs. Some humanoid robots
also include facial expressions, speech capabilities, and eye-tracking for natural human
interaction. Their main purpose is to interact with humans in a more familiar and socially
acceptable way. They are often used in research, education, customer service, and
entertainment. Advanced humanoids like Honda’s ASIMO, SoftBank’s Pepper, and Atlas by
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Boston Dynamics are capable of walking, running, dancing, and responding to voice
commands, is shown in Fig. 1.12. These robots require complex integration of sensors,
actuators, and AI to perform human-like tasks and navigate dynamic environments.

Figure 1.12: Humanoid Robot

7. Collaborative Robots (Cobots)

Collaborative robots, or Cobots, are a special class of robots designed to work alongside
humans in a shared workspace without the need for safety cages or barriers and is shown in Fig
1.13. They are equipped with sensors and soft control algorithms that limit their force and speed
to avoid causing injury. Cobots are typically lightweight, flexible, and easy to program. Unlike
traditional industrial robots that require high programming skills, cobots can often be taught
tasks by physically guiding them through the desired motion (teach-by-demonstration). They
are widely used in small- and medium-scale industries for tasks like pick-and-place, inspection,
gluing, and polishing. Cobots enhance human capabilities rather than replacing them, creating
a safer and more collaborative work environment.

Figure 1.13: Cobots

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8. Autonomous Robots

Autonomous robots are capable of making decisions and performing tasks without
continuous human intervention. They use sensors, controllers, and AI to perceive their
surroundings, navigate, and act independently. These robots are widely used in self-driving
cars, autonomous drones, cleaning robots (shown in Fig. 1.14), and planetary rovers. Key
features of autonomous robots include path planning, obstacle avoidance, localization, and
real-time decision-making. For example, an autonomous vacuum cleaner like Roomba can
detect dirt, avoid furniture, and return to its charging station without being controlled. Such
robots are particularly useful in dangerous, remote, or repetitive environments where human
presence is not feasible.

Figure 1.14: Autonomous Robots

9. Swarm Robots

Swarm robots are a group of small, simple robots that collaborate as a collective unit to
complete complex tasks, and is shown in Fig 1.15. Inspired by natural swarms like ants, bees,
and birds, these robots communicate with one another and exhibit collective intelligence. Each
individual robot may have limited ability, but together they can perform activities like area
coverage, search and rescue, or coordinated movement. Swarm robots are scalable, fault-
tolerant, and flexible. They are used in agricultural monitoring, warehouse logistics,
surveillance, and scientific exploration. Researchers are increasingly focusing on decentralized
algorithms and local interaction rules to make swarm behaviour more robust and adaptive.

Figure 1.15: Swarm Robots

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10. Augmenting Robots

Augmenting robots, also known as VR robots, either enhance current human
capabilities or replace the capabilities a human may have lost. The field of robotics for human
augmentation is a field where science fiction could become reality very soon, with bots that
have the ability to redefine the definition of humanity by making humans faster and stronger.
Some examples of current augmenting robots are robotic prosthetic limbs or exoskeletons used
to lift hefty weights.
11. Software Bots
Software bots, or simply ‘bots,’ are computer programs which carry out tasks
autonomously. They are not technically considered robots. One common use case of software
robots is a chatbot, which is a computer program that simulates conversation both online and
over the phone and is often used in customer service scenarios. Chatbots can either be simple
services that answer questions with an automated response or more complex digital assistants
that learn from user information.

12. Articulated robots:

Articulated robots (also known as robotic arms) are designed to perform functions
similar to those of a human arm. These are typically made up of two to ten rotary joints. With
each additional joint or axis, the range of motion increases, making these ideal for arc welding,
material handling, machine tending, and packaging.

Robotics Applications
Beginning as a major boon for manufacturers, robotics has become a mainstay technology for
a growing number of industries.
Manufacturing
Industrial robots can assemble products, sort items, perform welds and paint objects. They may
even be used to fix and maintain other machines in a factory or warehouse.
Healthcare
Medical robots transport medical supplies, perform surgical procedures and offer emotional
support to those going through rehabilitation.
Companionship
Social robots can support children with learning disabilities and act as a therapeutic tool for
people with dementia. They also have business applications like providing in-person customer
service in hotels and moving products around warehouses.
Home Use
Consumers may be most familiar with the Roomba and other robot vacuum cleaners. However,
other home robots include lawn-mowing robots and personal robot assistants that can play
music, engage with children and help with household chores.
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Search and Rescue

Search and rescue robots can save those stuck in flood waters, deliver supplies to those stranded
in remote areas and put out fires when conditions become too extreme for firefighters.
Brief Description

Robotics today is no longer confined to science fiction or laboratory environments. It

has expanded into a vast array of real-world domains where intelligent machines assist, replace,
or enhance human capabilities. From manufacturing and medical surgeries to agriculture,
space, and even daily household chores, robots are now integrated into almost every sector.
This section presents a detailed account of the different fields where robotics is applied, the
types of robots used, and the key benefits they offer.

1. Industrial and Manufacturing Applications

One of the earliest and most widespread applications of robotics is in industrial

manufacturing. Robots are used to automate repetitive, dangerous, or precision-based tasks in
factories. Common applications include welding, assembly, painting, palletizing, inspection,
and packaging. Industrial robots, especially robotic arms and manipulators, provide speed,
accuracy, and 24/7 operation without fatigue. They reduce human error and improve production
consistency. Industries such as automotive, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and food processing
heavily depend on robotic automation. Robotic systems in industries are often integrated with
sensors, machine vision, and conveyor belts for efficient workflows.

2. Healthcare and Medical Robotics

Robotics has revolutionized healthcare through applications like surgical robots,

rehabilitation devices, hospital automation, and elder care assistance. Surgical robots such as
the Da Vinci Surgical System allow for minimally invasive operations with high precision and

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smaller incisions, leading to quicker recovery for patients. In physical rehabilitation, robots
help patients regain movement through repetitive motion exercises. Assistive robots are used
for helping elderly or disabled individuals with tasks like lifting, walking, or medication
reminders. Telepresence robots allow doctors to consult patients remotely. Moreover, robots
are being used to automate hospital logistics by transporting medical supplies, cleaning rooms,
and assisting in patient monitoring.

3. Space Exploration

Space agencies like NASA, ISRO, and ESA use robotics extensively in missions to
explore planets and celestial bodies. Since human presence is not always possible or safe in
space, robots like rovers, landers, and satellite repair bots are used to perform tasks such as
collecting soil samples, analyzing the atmosphere, and transmitting data back to Earth. The
Mars rovers (e.g., Curiosity, Perseverance) are examples of autonomous mobile robots that can
navigate harsh terrain, avoid obstacles, and carry scientific instruments. Robotic arms are also
used on spacecraft to deploy satellites and perform maintenance in orbit.

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4. Agricultural Robotics

In agriculture, robots are used for automation of labor-intensive tasks, improving crop
yield and reducing costs. Applications include automated harvesting, seed planting, crop
monitoring, spraying fertilizers or pesticides, and soil testing. Robots like autonomous tractors
and fruit-picking arms reduce dependency on manual labour and increase efficiency. Drones
are used to monitor crop health, detect diseases, and create aerial maps of farmland. With the
help of AI, robotic systems can also predict the best time for harvesting or irrigation.
Agricultural robots contribute to precision farming, which ensures sustainable use of resources
like water and pesticides.

5. Military and Defense

In defense, robots are used for high-risk operations such as bomb disposal, surveillance,
search-and-rescue missions, and remote combat. Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) are
deployed for inspecting and neutralizing explosive devices. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
or drones conduct reconnaissance missions in hostile environments. These robots reduce
human exposure to dangerous situations. Defense robots are also used for border surveillance,
underwater mine detection, and carrying supplies in the battlefield. Many of these systems are
equipped with night vision, thermal imaging, and AI-based decision-making to support real-
time missions.

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6. Domestic and Personal Use

In everyday life, robots are increasingly becoming common in homes to perform

household chores and provide convenience. Robotic vacuum cleaners like Roomba, robotic
lawnmowers, window cleaners, and floor scrubbers are popular for autonomous cleaning.
Personal assistant robots can perform tasks like setting reminders, controlling smart home
devices, or entertaining children. Some home robots are equipped with voice recognition and
vision to interact with users naturally. In countries with aging populations, robots are also used
to assist elderly people with mobility, medication, or companionship.

7. Logistics and Warehouse Automation

Robotics has transformed supply chain management and warehouse operations. In large
distribution centers like those of Amazon, robots are used to pick, sort, transport, and package
items. Autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) and Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) navigate
warehouses using sensors, QR codes, or LiDAR. These systems reduce labor cost, increase
efficiency, and allow 24-hour operations. Robotic arms are also used in warehouses to handle
goods, scan barcodes, or load trucks.

8. Search and Rescue

Robots are invaluable tools in disaster response and search-and-rescue operations.

Equipped with cameras, thermal sensors, and communication systems, robots can navigate
collapsed buildings, tunnels, or flooded areas to find trapped victims and send data to rescue
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teams. Drones provide aerial imagery of affected regions, helping to assess damage and plan
operations. Robots are also used in fire rescue, underwater search missions, and nuclear disaster
zones where human access is risky or impossible.

9. Education and Research

Educational robots are designed to teach programming, electronics, and robotics

concepts to students at various levels. Kits like LEGO Mindstorms, VEX, and Arduino-based
robots are popular in schools and universities. These platforms allow students to build,
program, and experiment with robotic systems, encouraging STEM learning. In research,
robots are used to study AI, control systems, human-robot interaction, and biomechanics.
Academic research in robotics often leads to innovations in autonomous systems, wearable
robots, and soft robotics.

10. Underwater Robotics

Robotics also extends to underwater exploration, where human intervention is limited

due to pressure, darkness, and danger. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous
Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are used for inspecting pipelines, shipwrecks, or conducting
marine biology research. These robots are equipped with cameras, sonar, and manipulators to

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perform tasks undersea. Underwater robots are also used in oil and gas industries, naval
missions, and scientific studies of ocean floors.

The potential manufacturing applications of industrial robots are:

1.Maternal handling
▪ Depalletizing/palletizing
▪ Transporting components
▪ Transfer of components/tools
▪ Bottle loading
▪ Parts handling
2. Machine loading/unloading Components
▪ Loading parts to CNC machine tool
▪ Loading a punch press
▪ Loading a die casting machine
▪ Loading electron beam welding and laser beam welding machines
▪ Loading/orientating parts to transfer machines
▪ Loading parts on the test machine

3. Spray painting
▪ Painting of trucks/automobiles
▪ Painting of agricultural equipment
▪ Painting of appliance components
4. Welding
▪ Spot welding
▪ Arc welding
▪ Seam welding of variable width
5. Machining

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▪ Drilling
▪ Deburring
▪ Sanding
▪ Grinding
▪ Cutting
▪ Forming
6. Assembly
▪ Mating components
▪ Riveting small assemblies
7. Inspection
▪ In-process measuring and quality control, searching the missing parts
8. Others
▪ Heat-treatment, applications of adhesives, etc.
The non-manufacturing areas of robotic applications are:
1.Hazardous environments
(i) Mining
▪ Exploration
▪ Search and rescue
▪ Tunnelling for main roadways
▪ Operations in short passages
(ii) Municipal services
▪ Fire fighting
▪ Underground (dangerous gas-filled) sewer clearing
(iii) Nuclear
▪ Maintenance of atomic reactors
(iv) Space
▪ Space vehicles
(v) Underseas
▪ Oil/mineral exploration
▪ Salvage operations
2.Medical
▪ Rehabilitation engineering for handicapped
▪ Non-invasive/invasive diagnostics

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▪ Surgery
3. Distribution
▪ Warehousing
▪ Retailing (for food industry or for retail industry)
4. Agriculture
5. Hobby/household purposes
Military applications of robots may be in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing areas.
Pros and Cons of Robotics
Robotics comes with a number of benefits and drawbacks.
Pros of Robotics
• Increased accuracy. Robots can perform movements and actions with greater
precision and accuracy than humans.
• Enhanced productivity. Robots can work at a faster pace than humans and don’t get
tired, leading to more consistent and higher-volume production.
• Improved safety. Robots can take on tasks and operate in environments unsafe for
humans, protecting workers from injuries.
• Rapid innovation. Many robots are equipped with sensors and cameras that collect
data, so teams can quickly refine processes.
• Greater cost-efficiency. Gains in productivity may make robots a more cost-efficient
option for businesses compared to hiring more human workers.
Cons of Robotics
• Job losses. Robotic process automation may put human employees out of work,
especially those who don’t have the skills to adapt to a changing workplace.
• Limited creativity. Robots may not react well to unexpected situations since they don’t
have the same problem-solving skills as humans.
• Data security risks. Robots can be hit with cyber attacks, potentially exposing large
amounts of data if they’re connected to the Internet of Things.
• Maintenance costs. Robots can be expensive to repair and maintain, and faulty
equipment can lead to disruptions in production and revenue losses.
• Environmental waste. Extracting raw materials to build robots and having to discard
disposable parts can lead to more environmental waste and pollution.

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Future of Robotics
The evolution of AI has major implications for the future of robotics. In factories, AI
can be combined with robotics to produce digital twins and design simulations to help
companies improve their workflows. Advanced AI also gives robots increased autonomy. For
example, drones could deliver packages to customers without any human intervention. In
addition, robots could be outfitted with generative AI tools like ChatGPT, resulting in more
complex human-robot conversations. As robots’ intelligence has shifted, so too have their
appearances. Humanoid robots are designed to visually appeal to humans in various settings
while understanding and responding to emotions, carrying objects and navigating
environments. With these forms and abilities, robots can become major contributors in
customer service, manufacturing, logistics and healthcare, among other industries.
While the spread of robotics has stoked fears over job losses due to automation, robots
could simply change the nature of human jobs. Humans may find themselves collaborating
with robots, letting their robotic counterparts handle repetitive tasks while they focus on more
difficult problems. Either way, humans will need to adapt to the presence of robots as robotics
continues to progress alongside other technologies like AI and deep learning.

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