Lecture 5: World War II: Origins, Early Conflicts,

and the Road to U.S. Entry (1939-1941)

I. Introduction
• Overview of World War II

◦Global con ict that lasted from 1939 to 1945.

◦Major players: Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) vs. Allied Powers (France,
Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and later the United States).
◦The war was a result of unresolved issues from World War I, economic instability,
and the rise of authoritarian regimes.
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II. The Legacy of World War I and the Interwar Period

A. Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including territorial losses, military
restrictions, and reparations, which contributed to economic and political instability.
The treaty also created the League of Nations to maintain peace, but its inability to
enforce decisions, partly due to the U.S. not joining, weakened its effectiveness and
failed to prevent rising aggression in the 1930s.
B. The Global Depression (1929-1939)

The Global Depression (1929-1939) caused widespread economic hardship,

particularly in Germany, where it led to high unemployment and social unrest. This
crisis fueled the rise of extremist ideologies, including Adolf Hitler and the Nazi
Party, who promised to restore Germany’s economy and national pride, ultimately
paving the way for Hitler’s rise to power in 1933.
The Failure of the League of Nations

The League of Nations failed to prevent rising aggression from authoritarian regimes
in the 1930s due to its lack of enforcement power and the absence of key nations like
the United States. Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Italy's invasion of Ethiopia
in 1935, and Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936 were all acts of
aggression that went largely unchecked by the League. Its inability to act decisively
in these situations highlighted its weakness and contributed to the growing instability
that led to World War II.
D. Appeasement and the Policy of Concessions

Appeasement was a policy adopted by Britain and France in the 1930s, aimed at
avoiding con ict with Nazi Germany by making concessions to Hitler’s territorial
demands. The most notable example was the Munich Agreement of 1938, in which
Britain and France allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia,
hoping it would satisfy Hitler and prevent further aggression. However, this strategy
failed, as it emboldened Hitler, who continued his expansionist actions, ultimately
miscalculating that the Allies would continue to back down, which paved the way for
the outbreak of World War II.
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III. The Rise of Totalitarian Powers
A. Germany and Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany in the wake of the Great
Depression, capitalizing on widespread discontent with the Weimar Republic and the
harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Nazi ideology emphasized expansionism
(Lebensraum), advocating for the conquest of Eastern Europe, as well as racism and
anti-Semitism, with a focus on the superiority of the Aryan race and the persecution
of Jews. Once in power, Hitler consolidated his authority through totalitarian control
and pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at overturning the Treaty of
Versailles, rebuilding Germany’s military, and expanding its territory, setting the
stage for World War II.
B. Italy and Mussolini

Benito Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922, establishing a fascist regime that
emphasized authoritarian rule, nationalism, and militarism. Driven by expansionist
ambitions, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in 1935, aiming to build an Italian empire in
Africa. He also supported Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War
(1936-1939), providing military aid to the fascist forces ghting against the Spanish
Republic. These actions aligned Italy with Nazi Germany, further fueling the rise of
totalitarian regimes in Europe and contributing to the tensions that led to World War
II.

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 C. Japan and Militarism

Japan's imperial ambitions in Asia led to aggressive military expansion in the 1930s.
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo,
and in 1937, it launched a full-scale invasion of China, marking the beginning of the
Second Sino-Japanese War. Japan's expansionism in Asia strained relations with
Western powers and increased tensions in the Paci c, setting the stage for broader
con ict in the region. These actions, along with Japan's growing militarism,
contributed to the outbreak of World War II in the Paci c.
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D. The Axis Powers

The Axis Powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—formed an alliance in the late

1930s, driven by shared interests in territorial expansion and opposition to
communism. Germany, under Adolf Hitler, sought to dominate Europe; Italy, led by
Benito Mussolini, aimed to create a new Roman Empire in Africa; and Japan sought
to expand its in uence in Asia. The alliance was rooted in authoritarian ideologies
and a desire to challenge the existing global order, setting the stage for coordinated
military aggression that would trigger World War II.
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IV. The Outbreak of World War
A. The Invasion of Poland (1939)

On September 1, 1939, Adolf Hitler launched a rapid and brutal invasion of Poland,
employing blitzkrieg tactics, which combined fast-moving tanks, infantry, and
airstrikes to overwhelm the Polish defenses. This invasion prompted Britain and
France to declare war on Germany on September 3, 1939, of cially marking the
beginning of World War II. The swift German attack and the subsequent declaration
of war set the stage for a global con ict that would engulf Europe and eventually the
entire world.
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B. The Blitzkrieg and the Fall of Europe (1939-1940)

Blitzkrieg tactics, characterized by rapid, overwhelming attacks using tanks, aircraft, and
infantry, were employed by Germany to quickly conquer much of Europe. After invading
Poland in September 1939, Germany turned its attention to Denmark, Norway, and the
Low Countries (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg), overwhelming them in a series of
swift campaigns. By June 1940, France had fallen, and German forces occupied much of
the country. The Battle of Britain followed, with Germany launching an aerial assault on
Britain in an attempt to weaken its defenses and prepare for a potential invasion. However,
the Royal Air Force’s resilience and the failure to break British morale marked the rst
major defeat for Hitler.

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V. The Battle of Britain and the Axis Expansion
A. The Battle of Britain (1940)

The Battle of Britain (1940) was a crucial aerial campaign in which Germany
launched intense bombardments against Britain, aiming to destroy the Royal Air
Force (RAF) and prepare for a German invasion, known as Operation Sea Lion.
Despite being outnumbered, the RAF displayed remarkable resilience, successfully
defending British skies and preventing the invasion. The defeat marked the rst major
setback for Hitler, as Britain’s survival ensured it would remain a key base for the
Allies in the ght against Nazi Germany.
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B. The Axis Powers Expand

In 1941, the Axis Powers expanded their aggression across Europe and Asia.
Germany invaded the Balkans, including Yugoslavia and Greece, to secure its
southern ank before launching Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet
Union in June 1941. Meanwhile, Japan continued its expansion into Southeast Asia
and the Paci c, culminating in the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,
1941. This attack directly led to the United States’ entry into World War II, as
President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared war on Japan the following day, drawing
the U.S. into the global con ict.
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VI. The Early Years of the War
A. The Fall of France and the Vichy Regime

Germany's rapid conquest of France in June 1940 led to the collapse of the French
government and the establishment of the Vichy regime under Philippe Pétain, a
collaborationist government that cooperated with Nazi Germany. France was divided
into an occupied zone, controlled by German forces, and an unoccupied zone,
nominally governed by Vichy authorities, although in reality it was heavily in uenced
by Nazi demands. The Vichy regime's collaboration with the Nazis became a point of
controversy and resistance throughout the war.

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B. The Battle of the Atlantic

The Battle of the Atlantic was a prolonged struggle during World War II between
German U-boats (submarines) and Allied convoys for control of the vital Atlantic sea
lanes. Germany sought to disrupt Britain’s supply lines by targeting merchant ships
carrying goods and military supplies from the United States and the Soviet Union.
Britain’s dependence on these supplies was critical for its survival, and the battle
intensi ed as the Allies worked to protect their convoys with naval escorts and
improved anti-submarine tactics. The eventual success of the Allies in securing the
Atlantic was crucial to sustaining the war effort against Germany.
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 C. The War in Africa and the Middle East

The War in Africa and the Middle East saw British and German forces clash in
North Africa, primarily in Egypt and Libya, as both sides sought control over
strategic territories and vital resources. Early in the campaign, Italy’s attempts to
expand its empire in North Africa faltered, prompting the intervention of German
forces under General Erwin Rommel. Rommel’s Afrika Korps initially achieved
signi cant successes, but the tide turned at the Battle of El Alamein in 1942, where
British forces, led by Bernard Montgomery, delivered a decisive defeat to the Axis,
marking a turning point in the North African campaign.
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VII. The United States Before Entering the War
A. U.S. Neutrality and Isolationism

In the 1930s, the United States adopted a policy of neutrality and isolationism,
aiming to avoid involvement in foreign con icts, particularly after the experience of
World War I. Laws like the Neutrality Acts (1935-1939) were passed to prevent the
U.S. from being drawn into wars by restricting arms sales and loans to warring
nations. Public sentiment strongly favored staying out of European con icts, with
many Americans still wary of the costs and consequences of international
involvement, re ecting a widespread desire to focus on domestic issues rather than
foreign entanglements.
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 B. The Lend-Lease Act (March 1941)

In March 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt persuaded Congress to pass the

Lend-Lease Act, a critical step in shifting the U.S. away from neutrality. The act
allowed the United States to provide military aid, including weapons, equipment, and
supplies, to Britain, the Soviet Union, and other Allied nations without requiring a
formal declaration of war. This enabled the U.S. to support its allies in their ght
against the Axis powers while maintaining its of cial stance of neutrality, marking a
signi cant escalation of American involvement in the war.
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C. Growing Support for the Allies

As Germany’s attacks on U.S. merchant ships in the Atlantic escalated, American

public opinion gradually shifted in favor of supporting the Allies. President
Roosevelt’s "Four Freedoms" speech in January 1941 articulated the moral
imperative for the U.S. to assist in the defense of global democracy and freedom,
framing the war as a ght against tyranny. Roosevelt's speech helped garner support
for greater American involvement, emphasizing the need to protect fundamental
freedoms—freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom
from fear—on a global scale.
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D. U.S. Tensions with Japan

Japan’s ongoing aggression in China and Southeast Asia in the late 1930s and early
1940s raised signi cant concerns in the United States about Japan’s growing power in
the Paci c. In response, the U.S. imposed economic sanctions and embargoes on
Japan, including a crucial embargo on oil and steel in 1941, hoping to curb its
expansionist ambitions. These measures put intense pressure on Japan, which relied
heavily on American resources, and contributed to rising tensions that ultimately led
to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor later that year.
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VIII. The Road to War: The Attack on Pearl
Harbor
A. Japan’s Expansion in Asia

Japan’s military expansion in Asia continued aggressively in the early 1940s. In 1940,
Japan invaded French Indochina(present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia),
aiming to secure vital resources and strengthen its position in Southeast Asia. Japan
also set its sights on the Philippines, a U.S. territory, and began preparing for further
territorial conquests in the Paci c. This expansionism heightened tensions with the
United States and other Western powers, contributing to the growing instability in the
region and setting the stage for Japan’s broader involvement in World War II.
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B. The Attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)

On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, causing extensive damage to the U.S. Paci c Fleet and
killing over 2,400 Americans. The attack crippled much of the U.S. Navy's Paci c
forces, but also galvanized the American public. The following day, December 8,
1941, the United States declared war on Japan, of cially entering World War II and
shifting the course of the con ict in both the Paci c and European theaters.
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 C. Germany and Italy Declare War on the U.S.

Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy, as part of the Axis
Powers, declared war on the United States on December 11, 1941. This action
signi cantly expanded the scope of the con ict, formally bringing the U.S. into the
European theater of World War II. The U.S. was now at war with both Japan in the
Paci c and Germany and Italy in Europe, solidifying its role as a global power in the
ght against the Axis.
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IX. Conclusion
 The rise of authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930s led to
aggressive expansionism, while the failures of diplomacy and appeasement allowed these
powers to act unchecked, culminating in the outbreak of World War II. The early years of the
war saw rapid Axis victories in Europe and Asia, while the United States, initially adhering to
a policy of isolationism, gradually shifted to active involvement, particularly after the attack
on Pearl Harbor in 1941. As the war progressed, it became increasingly global, with key
turning points in 1942-1943, such as the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Midway, that
marked the beginning of the Allied advance. Ultimately, the combined efforts of the Allies led
to the defeat of the Axis powers and the eventual Allied victory in 1945.
Discussion questions:
1.Treaty of Versailles and Authoritarianism: How did the harsh terms of the Treaty
of Versailles contribute to the rise of dictatorships in Germany, Italy, and Japan?
2.Appeasement and Aggression: Did the policy of appeasement prevent or
encourage further Axis aggression in the 1930s?
3.U.S. Shift from Isolationism: How did the U.S. transition from isolationism to
active involvement impact the outcome of World War II?
4.League of Nations' Failures: How did the League of Nations fail to maintain
peace, and what lessons can be learned for modern diplomacy?
5.Turning Points in 1942-1943: What were the key battles that shifted the
momentum of the war in favor of the Allies, and why were they signi cant?

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