ASSIGNMENT 01

Course: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

Course Code: 8604

B.Ed (1 ½ YEARS)
Semester: Spring 2025
Submitted By: QURAT-UL-AIN
Roll Number: 0000898903
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD,
PAKISTAN
 QUESTION No. 01

Classify the research based on its purpose

and explain each type of research in detail.
_______________________________________
Answer:
Classification of Research based on Purpose

Research can be classified based on its purpose or objective into several major categories. These
types define why the research is being conducted. The most common classifications based on
purpose include:

1. Basic (or Pure or Fundamental) Research

2. Applied Research
3. Action Research
4. Evaluation Research
5. Exploratory Research
6. Descriptive Research
7. Explanatory (or Causal) Research

Let’s now explore each of these in detail.

1. Basic Research

Definition:

Basic research is conducted to increase our understanding of fundamental principles. It is not

concerned with solving immediate practical problems, but rather with advancing knowledge.

Purpose:

 To develop or refine theories.

 To expand the existing body of knowledge.
 To understand underlying mechanisms and truths.
Characteristics:

 Theoretical in nature.
 Not intended for immediate application.
 Carried out mainly in laboratories or academic settings.
 Often leads to new discoveries or models.

Example:

 Studying how memory works in the human brain.

 Exploring the nature of gravity.
 Investigating the learning process in children.

In Education:

 Understanding how students process information during reading.

 Developing new theories of motivation in learning environments.

2. Applied Research

Definition:

Applied research is aimed at solving specific, practical problems. It uses the knowledge gained
from basic research and applies it to real-world situations.

Purpose:

 To find solutions to immediate problems.

 To improve current practices, policies, or systems.
Characteristics:

 Practical and problem-solving in nature.

 Conducted in real-life settings like schools, hospitals, organizations.
 Has direct implications for action.

Example:

 Developing a new teaching method for dyslexic children.

 Researching the best strategies to reduce student dropout rates.

In Education:

 Testing whether using tablets in classrooms improves academic achievement.

 Evaluating which teaching strategy leads to better understanding in math.

3. Action Research

Definition:

Action research is a collaborative and reflective process used by practitioners (e.g., teachers) to
improve their own practices through systematic inquiry.

Purpose:

 To solve problems and improve practices within a specific context.

 To empower practitioners to be agents of change.

Characteristics:
  Conducted by and for practitioners (like teachers).
 Cyclical process: Planning → Acting → Observing → Reflecting.
 Localized and context specific.

Example:

 A teacher investigating why students are not participating in group discussions.

 A principal exploring ways to reduce student absenteeism in their school.

In Education:

 A special education teacher testing a new classroom management technique.

 A school conducting action research to increase parental involvement.

4. Evaluation Research

Definition:

Evaluation research is conducted to assess the effectiveness, impact, or value of a program,

policy, product, or practice.

Purpose:

 To make informed decisions about continuation, modification, or termination of programs.

 To determine whether goals and objectives are being met.

Characteristics:

 Focused on outcomes and processes.

  Involves stakeholders (e.g., administrators, policymakers).
 Uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.

Example:

 Evaluating the effectiveness of an online learning platform in improving student

performance.
 Assessing the impact of a new curriculum on literacy rates.

In Education:

 Measuring the success of an inclusive education policy.

 Evaluating the outcome of a teacher training workshop.

5. Exploratory Research

Definition:

Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher has little or no prior knowledge about a
topic and seeks to explore it for the first time.

Purpose:

 To gain insights and familiarity with a subject.

 To lay the groundwork for more conclusive research later.

Characteristics:

 Open-ended and flexible.

  Often qualitative in nature.
 May involve literature reviews, expert interviews, or focus groups.

Example:

 Exploring why students choose private tuition despite school support.

 Investigating emerging trends in online education.

In Education:

 Exploring student attitudes towards hybrid learning models.

 Understanding challenges faced by first-generation college students.

6. Descriptive Research

Definition:

Descriptive research aims to describe characteristics or functions of individuals, groups,

institutions, or situations.

Purpose:

 To present an accurate profile of persons, events, or situations.

 To gather information that paints a picture of a phenomenon.

Characteristics:

 Focuses on "what is" rather than "why" or "how".

 Often uses surveys, observations, or case studies.
 Can be quantitative or qualitative.
Example:

 A survey on students’ study habits.

 Describing the demographic profile of a school district.

In Education:

 Gathering data on teacher satisfaction levels.

 Documenting the resources available in rural schools.

7. Explanatory Research (Causal Research)

Definition:

Explanatory research is conducted to explain the cause-and-effect relationships between

variables.

Purpose:

 To test hypotheses.
 To determine whether a change in one variable causes a change in another.

Characteristics:

 Involves experiments or longitudinal studies.

 Requires control over variables.
 Can be complex and technical.
Example:

 Investigating whether reward systems increase student motivation.

 Testing if smaller class sizes improve learning outcomes.

In Education:

 Studying the effect of parental involvement on academic performance.

 Evaluating whether blended learning improves student engagement.

Comparison Table of Research Types by Purpose

Type of Research Purpose Nature Application

Basic Research Advance theory Theoretical Long-term
Applied Research Solve real problems Practical Short-
term/Immediate
Action Research Improve local Reflective & Cyclical School/Classroom
practices level
Evaluation Judge effectiveness Analytical Policy/Program
Research based
Exploratory Explore unknown Qualitative Foundational
Research topics
Descriptive Describe current state Quantitative/Qualitati Surveys/Reports
Research ve
Explanatory Establish cause-effect Scientific/Experimen Hypothesis testing
Research tal
Conclusion

Understanding the purpose behind research is crucial for selecting the right methods, design, and
tools. Each type of research—whether basic or applied, descriptive or causal—serves a specific
role in the advancement of knowledge and the betterment of society. In education, these types
help teachers, administrators, and policymakers make evidence-based decisions for student
success.
 REFERENCES OF QUESTION No. 01

 https://learnthrill.com/types-of-research-explained-with-examples/
 https://nursinggoln.com/types-of-research/
 https://socialworkmethods.com/types-of-research/
 https://wikieducator.org/Research
 https://socialworkmethods.com/types-of-research-and-its-5-levels/
 https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-basic-research-2794876
 https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-applied-research-2794820
 https://studylib.net/doc/10140699/classification-of-research
 https://www.scribd.com/document/659578649/Lecture-3-Classification-of-Research
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_research
 QUESTION No. 02

How experimental research is different from

descriptive research. discuss in detail.

______________________________________________

Answer:
Difference Between Experimental and Descriptive Research

Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to increase our
understanding of a phenomenon. Two major types of research methodologies are:

 Descriptive Research
 Experimental Research

These two types differ fundamentally in purpose, process, structure, tools, and outcomes. Let’s
explore their definitions, characteristics, differences, and practical examples in great detail.

1) Definitions

Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Descriptive research aims to describe the Experimental research aims to investigate

characteristics of a phenomenon or a group causal relationships by manipulating one
without manipulating any variables. variable to observe its effect on another.

It answers the question: “What is It answers the question: “Why is it

happening?” happening?” or “What will happen if we do
this?”

Example: What are the study habits of Example: Does the use of visual aids improve
university students? students' memory retention?
2. Purpose and Objective

Aspect Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Purpose To observe, describe, and document a To establish cause-and-effect
situation as it naturally occurs relationships
Objective To present an accurate picture of current To test hypotheses and determine the
conditions or events impact of variables

3. Nature of Variables

Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Variables are not manipulated. At least one independent variable is manipulated.
Researcher plays the role of an Researcher plays the role of an intervener.
observer.

4. Control and Manipulation

 Descriptive Research:
No control or manipulation over variables. Data is collected in natural settings.
 Experimental Research:
Researcher controls extraneous variables and manipulates the independent variable to
measure its effect on the dependent variable.
5. Design and Methodology

 Surveys and Questionnaires

 Interviews
Descriptive Research Methods  Observations
 Case Studies
 Documentary Analysis

 Pre-test and Post-test Design

 Control Group vs. Experimental Group
Experimental Research Methods:  Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)
 Laboratory or Field Experiments

6. Hypotheses and Theory Testing

Descriptive Research:

 May not test a hypothesis

 Exploratory in nature

Experimental Research:

 Always begins with a hypothesis

 Confirmatory in nature
7. Data Collection

Descriptive Research:

 Focuses on what exists.

 Uses non-experimental tools like:
o Open/closed-ended surveys
o Observation checklists
o Structured interviews

Experimental Research:

 Focuses on what will happen when conditions change.

 Uses controlled tools, such as:
o Laboratory instruments
o Pre/post assessments
o Experimental simulations

8. Data Analysis

Descriptive Research:

 Uses descriptive statistics:

o Mean, Median, Mode
o Frequency distributions
o Percentages
o Graphs and charts
Experimental Research:

 Uses inferential statistics:

o T-tests
o ANOVA
o Regression analysis
o Correlation coefficients

9. Examples in Education

Descriptive Research Example Experimental Research Example

Studying how many students use Testing whether using e-learning platforms increases
online resources for homework test scores
Observing classroom management Comparing the academic results of students taught
styles of teachers using two different teaching strategies
Surveying students’ attitudes towards Measuring the impact of peer tutoring on students
inclusive education with learning disabilities

10. Validity and Reliability

Descriptive:

 High in external validity (generalizability) but may lack control over biases.

Experimental:

 High in internal validity (causal control) but may lack generalizability due to artificial
settings.
11. Advantages and Limitations

Researches Advantages Limitations

 Simple and cost-  Cannot determine

effective cause and effect
 Suitable for large  Observer bias may
populations occur
Descriptive Research
 Easy to conduct  Limited scope for
 Good for preliminary theory testing
understanding

 Establishes causality  Expensive and time-

 Controlled consuming
environment increases  Ethical limitations
accuracy (e.g., testing on
Experimental Research
 Hypotheses can be students)
tested
 May lacks realism
(artificial setting)
 12. When to Use Each Type

Use Descriptive Research When… Use Experimental Research When…

You need to understand “what exists” in a You want to understand “why something
population happens”
You are not ready to test a hypothesis You have a clear hypothesis to test
The variables cannot be manipulated The independent variable can be ethically and
practically manipulated
You want to study a phenomenon in its You want to test results in a controlled
natural setting environment

13. Summary Chart

Feature Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Aim Describe the status Discover cause-and-effect
Control over None Full control
variables
Manipulation of No Yes
variables
Tools used Surveys, Observations, Interviews Experiments, Trials, Simulations
Hypothesis testing Not essential Essential
Example Survey on student stress Effect of meditation on student
stress
Nature Observational Interventional
Type of Data Mostly quantitative, some Quantitative, measurable
qualitative outcomes
14. Real-World Example for Clear Understanding

Topic: Does technology help students learn better?

 Descriptive Approach:
A researcher distributes a survey to 500 students asking how often they use digital tools
and what they think about their usefulness.
 Experimental Approach:
A researcher selects two groups of students. One group uses traditional textbooks, the
other uses a digital platform. After a month, both groups take the same test to compare
performance.

Conclusion

While Descriptive Research helps us understand and document “what is,” Experimental
Research goes a step further by answering “why” and “how” changes occur. Both are crucial in
the field of education, psychology, social sciences, and beyond. Knowing the distinction enables
researchers to select the right methodology, ensuring valid, reliable, and meaningful results.
 REFERENCES OF QUESTION No. 02

 https://criticalthinking.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/experimental-vs-non- experimental-
research/

 https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Statistics/Learning_Statistics_with_R_-
_A_tutorial_for_Psychology_Students_and_other_Beginners_(Navarro)/02%3A_A_Brief_I
ntroduction_to_Research_Design/2.05%3A_Experimental_and_Non- experimental_Researc
h

 https://study.com/academy/lesson/non- experimental- and- experimental- research- difference

s- advantages- disadvantages.html

 https://www.formpl.us/blog/experimental- non- experimental- research

 https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/experimental-_research/

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_research

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method

 https://statisticalsolutions.net/nonexperimental-versus-experimental-design/

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344123456_Experimental_vs_Descriptive_Researc
h_in_Education
 QUESTION No. 03

What are historical sources? Keeping in

mind them discuss historical criticism in
detail.

______________________________________________

Answer:
Historical sources

Definition

Historical sources are materials or evidence from the past that historians use to study and
interpret historical events, people, cultures, or developments. These sources form the foundation
for writing and understanding history.

In other words, historical sources are the raw data of historical research.

Types of Historical Sources

Historical sources are mainly divided into two main categories:

1. Primary Sources

2. Secondary Sources

3. Tertiary Sources (Sometimes Added)

1. Primary Sources

These are original, first-hand accounts or evidence created during the time being studied.

Examples:

 Letters, diaries, autobiographies

 Official records, laws, government documents
 Newspaper articles (from that time)
  Photographs, audio recordings, films
 Artifacts, coins, weapons
 Manuscripts and ancient texts
 Eyewitness accounts
 Court proceedings

Features:

 Created by someone who experienced the event

 Direct evidence without interpretation
 Most reliable but may be biased

2. Secondary Sources

These are interpretations or analyses of historical events written after the fact, usually by
scholars.

Examples:

 Textbooks
 Encyclopedias
 Documentaries (made later)
 History books and journal articles
 Commentaries or reviews
Features:

 Based on primary sources

 Useful for broader understanding
 Often offer critical analysis or synthesis

3. Tertiary Sources (Sometimes added)

These compile and summarize secondary and primary sources.

Examples:

 Chronologies
 Databases
 Almanacs

Importance of Historical Sources

 Help reconstruct the past with authenticity

 Enable researchers to verify facts
 Allow deeper understanding of cultural, political, and social history
 Provide evidence for historical arguments or theories
Historical Criticism

Definition

Historical criticism is a method of examining historical sources critically to determine their

authenticity, reliability, and meaning. It involves analyzing sources to assess their accuracy and
to understand the context in which they were created.

It is a part of historical research methodology used to ensure the truthfulness and usefulness of a
source.

Purpose of Historical Criticism

 To judge the credibility of a document or artifact.

 To determine whether a source is authentic or forged.
 To discover the historical truth as accurately as possible.
 To analyze biases and perspectives of the author.
 To place the source within its proper historical context.

Types of Historical Criticism

Historical criticism is broadly divided into two main types:

1. External Criticism (Authenticity Test)

Definition:
External criticism focuses on verifying the authenticity of the document or artifact. It seeks to
answer:

“Is the source genuine or fake?”

Questions Asked:

 Who wrote or created the document?

 When and where was it created?
 Is the handwriting or language consistent with the period?
 Are there any signs of tampering?
 Is the material (paper, ink, artifact) historically accurate?

Tools and Techniques:

 Paleography (study of old handwriting)

 Archaeological examination
 Scientific dating (carbon-14, dendrochronology)
 Comparison with other documents

Example:

Verifying if a letter supposedly written by Alexander the Great was truly written during his time
or is a later forgery.

2. Internal Criticism (Credibility Test)

Definition:

Internal criticism is concerned with the content of the source and its trustworthiness. It asks:
“Is the information in the source accurate, reliable, and unbiased?”

Questions Asked:

 Was the author in a position to know the facts?

 Does the author show signs of bias?
 Are there inconsistencies or contradictions?
 Is the tone emotional or factual?
 Does it align with other known historical facts?

Tools and Techniques:

 Contextual reading
 Logical consistency
 Cross-referencing with other sources
 Analysis of bias and intention

Example:

Analyzing a political speech to determine if the speaker exaggerated facts to win public support.

Process of Applying Historical Criticism

Step 1: Collection of Sources

Search for as many relevant primary and secondary sources as possible.

Step 2: Apply External Criticism

Verify authenticity using external criteria.

Step 3: Apply Internal Criticism

Analyze credibility and accuracy of content.

Step 4: Interpretation

Interpret the meaning of the source in light of the context, era, and audience.

Step 5: Corroboration

Compare multiple sources to cross-verify facts and identify patterns or contradictions.

Importance of Historical Criticism in Research

 Eliminates Forgery: Filters out fake or altered documents.

 Ensures Objectivity: Helps historians stay unbiased.
 Improves Accuracy: Helps in reconstructing events truthfully.
 Reveals Hidden Bias: Exposes motivations and ideologies behind texts.
 Strengthens Scholarship: Builds solid foundations for historical theories.

Examples in Practice

Source External Criticism Internal Criticism

Diary of a 1947 refugee Is the diary authentic? Is the person’s experience typical?
Who wrote it? Are there exaggerations?
Ancient coin Is the coin from that What does the design tell us about
era? Is it real or the economy or ruler?
reproduction?
 A war memoir Was the author present Does the account match with
during the war? known historical facts?

Challenges in Historical Criticism

 Biased Sources: Every source has a perspective.

 Incomplete Records: Many documents are lost or destroyed.
 Translation Errors: Ancient texts can be misunderstood.
 Forged Documents: Some sources are intentionally deceptive.
 Modern Interpretation: Risk of present-day values influencing interpretation.

Historical Criticism in Educational Research

In educational research, historical criticism is used to:

 Analyze the evolution of educational policies.

 Study the biography and works of educational reformers (e.g., John Dewey).
 Investigate past schooling systems, curriculum changes, or pedagogical practices.

Example:
A B.Ed. student researching the history of inclusive education in Pakistan would use historical
criticism to:

 Validate the authenticity of policy documents.

 Evaluate whether the reports accurately represent the challenges of the time.
 Cross-check different sources to identify reforms and trends.
Conclusion

Historical sources are the building blocks of historical knowledge, and historical criticism is the
tool that helps us examine them critically. By applying external and internal criticism, historians

and researchers can validate the authenticity and reliability of sources, ensuring that the past is
represented truthfully and accurately.

Understanding historical criticism is essential for anyone engaged in history, education, or

research, as it allows us to differentiate between myth and reality, and between fact and
opinion—ultimately contributing to informed learning and teaching.
 REFERENCES OF QUESTION No. 03

 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd- tc3- academicwriting1/chapter/primary-secondary-

and-tertiary-sources/
 https://ocadu.libguides.com/Definingsources
 https://lib.guides.umbc.edu/primaryandsecondary
 https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/source-types
 https://libguides.umflint.edu/idinfosources/primarysecondary/
 https://library.carleton.ca/guides/help/primary-secondary-and-tertiary-sources
 https://utopia.ut.edu/introductiontoresearch/sources
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_source
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_criticism
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source
 QUESTION No. 04

Discuss different methods used as a tool for

acquiring knowledge. Compare the various
steps in the scientific method with steps in the
research process?

______________________________________________

Answer:
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Knowledge can be acquired through various means depending on context, culture, and the field
of inquiry. Over time, human beings have developed several tools or methods to gain
knowledge about the world.

1. Methods Used for Acquiring Knowledge

1.1 Tenacity (Tradition or Habit)

 Definition: Accepting something as true because it has always been believed or practiced.
 Example: Believing that studying at night is harmful simply because elders have always
said so.
 Limitations: Resistant to change, may not be factually accurate, lacks evidence.

1.2 Authority

 Definition: Accepting information as true based on the credibility or position of the

source.
 Example: Trusting a teacher’s explanation of historical events without questioning.
 Strength: Useful when information is needed quickly.
 Limitations: Authority may be wrong or biased.

1.3 Intuition or Common Sense

 Definition: Accepting something as true based on a gut feeling or instinct.

 Example: Feeling that a person is trustworthy without any proof.
 Limitations: Highly subjective, often misleading.
1.4 Rationalism (Reasoning or Logic)

 Definition: Deriving knowledge through logical reasoning and deduction.

 Example: If all students must attend class and Ali is a student, then Ali must attend class.
 Strength: Useful in forming arguments.
 Limitations: If initial premises are wrong, conclusions will be wrong.

1.5 Empiricism (Observation and Experience)

 Definition: Knowledge is gained through sensory experience (seeing, hearing, touching).

 Example: Learning that fire is hot by touching it.
 Strength: Based on direct evidence.
 Limitations: Can be influenced by perception bias.

1.6 Scientific Method

 Definition: A systematic, logical approach to discovering how things in the universe

work.
 Combines: Observation + Hypothesis + Experimentation + Analysis.

Comparison Between Scientific Method and Research Process

Both the Scientific Method and the Research Process are systematic approaches to acquiring
knowledge. They share many common steps but are used in different contexts.

Let’s compare them in detail.

Scientific Method

The Scientific Method is used in the natural sciences to explore cause-and-effect relationships
by forming and testing hypotheses.

Steps of the Scientific Method:

1. Observation

 Recognizing a problem or noticing a phenomenon.

 Example: Noticing that students in online classes score differently than in physical
classes.

2. Question

 Turning the observation into a question.

 Example: Why do online students score lower than physical class students?

3. Hypothesis

 A tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested.

 Example: "Students in online classes score lower due to lack of face-to-face interaction."

4. Experimentation

 Designing and conducting tests or controlled experiments to test the hypothesis.

 Includes: independent and dependent variables, control groups, etc.

5. Data Collection

 Systematic gathering of facts through observation or measurement.

6. Analysis

 Organizing and examining the collected data to determine if it supports the hypothesis.

7. Conclusion

 Determining whether the hypothesis was correct.

 Suggests further research or modifications.

8. Reporting/Publication

 Sharing the results through papers, journals, or presentations for peer review.

Research Process

The Research Process is a broader concept used in both social and natural sciences, including
educational and psychological research.

Steps of the Research Process:

1. Identification of the Problem

 Defining what needs to be investigated.

 Example: "Lack of parental involvement in students’ education."

2. Review of Related Literature

 Studying existing work to understand what has been done already.

3. Formulation of Hypotheses/Objectives

 Hypotheses (in quantitative research) or Objectives (in qualitative research).

4. Research Design

 Choosing the type of research: descriptive, experimental, qualitative, etc.

5. Selection of Sample and Tools

 Selecting the sample population and the tools (questionnaires, tests, observations).

6. Data Collection

 Using tools to collect information relevant to the problem.

7. Data Analysis and Interpretation

 Using statistical tools to analyze data and draw meaningful conclusions.

8. Report Writing

 Presenting the entire research in structured form: Introduction, Methods, Results,

Discussion.

9. Recommendations/Applications

 Providing practical suggestions based on the findings.

Comparative Table: Scientific Method vs. Research Process

Aspect Scientific Method Research Process

Scope Primarily used in natural Used in all fields, including education, psychology
sciences
Start Point Observation of a phenomenon Identification of a problem
Hypothesis Central to process Often involved but may not always be present
Data Through experiments Through experiments, surveys, interviews, etc.
Collection
Control Emphasizes controlled May or may not use control
conditions
Outcome To test theories and discover To solve problems or understand phenomena
laws
Tools Lab instruments, simulations Questionnaires, statistical software, field
observations
Final Step Conclusion and theory revision Recommendations and policy suggestions

Example to Understand Both

Scenario: You're studying the effect of mobile usage on students' sleep.

Scientific Method:

 Observation: Students using phones at night report being tired.

 Question: Does nighttime phone use reduce sleep hours?
 Hypothesis: More phone use = Less sleep.
 Experiment: Group A uses phones before sleep, Group B doesn't.
  Result: Group A sleeps 1.5 hours less.
 Conclusion: Excessive phone use reduces sleep time.

Research Process:

 Problem: Increasing sleep issues among high school students.

 Literature Review: What others say about phone use and sleep.
 Objective: To examine the impact of mobile phone use on sleep quality.
 Design: Descriptive survey.
 Tools: Sleep quality questionnaire.
 Sample: 200 students from 5 schools.
 Data Analysis: Using SPSS to analyze sleep patterns.
 Findings: 70% of students with high phone usage report poor sleep.
 Recommendations: Schools should create awareness campaigns.

Conclusion

Both the methods of acquiring knowledge and the comparison of scientific method with the
research process show how humans progress from curiosity to knowledge, from doubt to
understanding.

 Traditional methods (authority, intuition) are still relevant, but

 Scientific and research methods offer systematic, reliable, and valid paths to discovering
the truth.

Understanding the steps, tools, and logic behind both helps educators, scientists, psychologists,
and researchers make informed decisions and contribute meaningfully to knowledge building.
 REFERENCES OF QUESTION No. 04

 https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/methods-of-knowing/

 https://studycorgi.com/knowledge-acquisition-comparison-of-experience-authority-
reasoning-and-the-scientific-method/

 https://psm.net.pk/various-steps-in-the-scientific-method-used-in-the-research-process/

 https://www.studocu.com/row/messages/question/8450375/discuss-scientific-method-as-a-
tool-of-acquiring-knowledge-compare-it-with-various-steps-in-the/

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_research

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method#Outline_of_scientific_method

 https://quizlet.com/564487753/research-methods-chapter-1-introduction-acquiring-
knowledge-and-the-scientific-method-flash-cards/

 https://www.verywellmind.com/steps-of-the-scientific-method-2795782
 QUESTION No. 05

Distinguish experimental research from non-

experimental research. What are different
experimental designs that can be used to
address the educational issues?

______________________________________________

Answer:
 Distinguishing Experimental Research from Non-Experimental
Research

1. Definition

Experimental Research:

Experimental research is a quantitative research method in which the researcher manipulates one
or more independent variables and controls other variables to determine their effect on a
dependent variable.

Example: Testing whether a new teaching method improves student performance by applying it
to one group and comparing results with another group not using the method.

Non-Experimental Research:

Non-experimental research involves observing and analyzing phenomena without manipulating

variables. It focuses on describing, exploring, or explaining relationships as they naturally occur.

Example: Surveying students about their study habits and academic performance.

2. Key Differences Between Experimental and Non-Experimental

Research

Aspect Experimental Research Non-Experimental Research

Variable Yes – Independent variable is manipulated No – Variables are observed as they occur
Manipulation
Control Group Often includes a control group No control group
Causality Can establish cause-and-effect relationships Cannot establish causality, only associations
Setting Conducted in controlled environments Conducted in natural settings
Design Pre-test/post-test, control-experimental Survey, correlational, observational, case
group designs study
Objective To test hypotheses and theories To explore, describe, or correlate variables
Examples in Testing effectiveness of multimedia Survey on attitudes toward online learning
Education instruction

3. Types of Non-Experimental Research in Education

 Descriptive Research: Describes characteristics (e.g., a survey on reading habits).

 Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables (e.g., correlation
between attendance and grades).
 Causal-Comparative Research: Compares two or more groups without manipulating
variables (e.g., academic performance of boys vs. girls).

Different Experimental Designs to Address Educational Issues

Experimental research can take several forms. In educational settings, the design depends on:

 Feasibility
 Ethical concerns
 Control over variables
 Nature of the population

Below are the major types of experimental designs commonly used in education:

1. Pre-Experimental Designs

These are simplest forms of experimental designs, often lacking randomization or control
groups.
A. One-Shot Case Study

 Structure: A single group is exposed to a treatment, and the outcome is observed.

 Design: X → O
(X = Treatment, O = Observation)

Example: A teacher tries a new teaching method in one class and gives a test after the lesson.

 Limitation: No pre-test or control group, so we cannot determine whether the treatment

caused the result.

B. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

 Structure: A single group is measured before and after treatment.

 Design: O₁ → X → O₂

Example: Testing reading skills before and after a new reading strategy is introduced.

 Limitation: No control group; changes might be due to other factors.

2. True Experimental Designs

True experiments include random assignment, control groups, and manipulation of the
independent variable.

A. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

 Design:
Experimental Group: O₁ → X → O₂
Control Group: O₁ → — → O₂
Example: One group learns via a smart-board (experimental), another through traditional
lectures (control), both tested before and after.

 Strength: Controls for external factors and allows causal conclusions.

B. Posttest-Only Control Group Design

 Design:
Experimental Group: X → O
Control Group: — → O

Example: After teaching two randomly assigned groups with different strategies, only post-test
is administered.

 Use: When pre-testing is not feasible or may influence behavior (testing effect).

C. Solomon Four-Group Design

 Design:
o Group 1: O₁ → X → O₂
o Group 2: O₁ → — → O₂
o Group 3: — → X → O
o Group 4: — → — → O

Purpose: Controls for both testing effects and experimental manipulation.

 Advantage: One of the most robust designs.

 Limitation: Requires large sample size and resources.
3. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Used when random assignment is not possible due to ethical or practical limitations.

A. Non-Equivalent Control Group Design

 Design:
Experimental Group: O₁ → X → O₂
Control Group: O₁ → — → O₂

Example: One existing class uses a flipped classroom model; another class continues traditional
learning.

 Limitation: Groups may differ in important ways (e.g., background knowledge).

B. Interrupted Time Series Design

 Design: O₁ → O₂ → O₃ → X → O₄ → O₅ → O₆

Example: Observing students’ test scores over multiple weeks before and after introducing a
new teaching app.

 Strength: Shows long-term trends and immediate changes after intervention.

C. Regression Discontinuity Design

 Assigns participants to experimental/control groups based on a cutoff score.

Example: Students scoring below 50 receive intervention; others do not.

 Used When: Random assignment isn't feasible, but a clear assignment rule exists.
Applications of Experimental Designs in Education

Educational Problem Experimental Design Used Example Application

Improving reading skills Pretest-Posttest Control Comparing phonics vs. whole language
Group methods
Reducing math anxiety Quasi-Experimental Testing math games in two existing classrooms
Testing e-learning tools Solomon Four-Group Checking effectiveness of new LMS platform
Enhancing inclusion One-Group Pretest-Posttest Training teachers in inclusive practices
Developing critical True Experimental Comparing traditional vs. problem-based
thinking learning

Conclusion

Understanding the distinction between experimental and non-experimental research allows

educational researchers and practitioners to choose the right method for their questions.

 Experimental research is best for establishing cause-and-effect relationships and testing

innovative educational practices.
 Non-experimental research is suitable for exploring, describing, or correlating variables
without interference.

Moreover, selecting the appropriate experimental design—from basic to complex—ensures that

educational interventions are tested rigorously, leading to valid conclusions and evidence-based
decision-making in schools, universities, and educational policy.
 REFERENCES OF QUESTION No. 05

 https://criticalthinking.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/experimental- vs- non- experimental- researc

h/

 https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Statistics/Learning_Statistics_with_R_-
_A_tutorial_for_Psychology_Students_and_other_Beginners_(Navarro)/02%3A_A_Brief_I
ntroduction_to_Research_Design/2.05%3A_Experimental_and_Non- experimental_Researc
h

 https://study.com/academy/lesson/non- experimental- and- experimental- research- difference

s- advantages- disadvantages.html

 https://www.formpl.us/blog/experimental- non- experimental- research

 https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/experimental- _research/

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_research

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research

 https://statisticalsolutions.net/nonexperimental-versus-experimental-design/

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344123456_Experimental_vs_Descriptive_Researc
h_in_Education

 https://methodology.psychology.purdue.edu/quant/nonexper_designs/