METHODS OF TEACHING

Introduction
Good teaching is the main criterion of an effective teacher. Every individual is unique & so
different teachers adopt different methods & strategies of teaching. The main objective of
teaching is to bring about desired changes in the attitude & behaviour of the learner.
The selection of the teaching methods depends upon the nature of a task, learning objectives,
learner’s abilities & student’s entering behaviour. Teaching methods includes the principles
and methods of instruction. All instruction material will be carefully selected and arranged in
an orderly fashion.
Definition of Method of Teaching
 The way or style of the presentation of content in a classroom is called teaching
method.
 An orderly systematic, organized well planned procedure where skill full teacher
broadly reviews the teaching material, scrutinize and analyse the specific content,
arranges the topic in a systematic, logical, sequential way which directs and guides
the teacher in their classroom instruction and enhances effective teaching by
achieving the specific instructional objectives where by learning output will be
maximized.
 According to Burton, teaching method is the stimulation, guidance, direction and
encouragement of learning.
Objectives of Teaching
Teaching is not an easy job. It comes with a lot of responsibilities and goals. These objectives
form the foundation of the job and teachers should work every day to fulfil their objectives.

o To help students acquire knowledge and wisdom. One of the main objectives of
teaching is to impart knowledge and wisdom. However, this is not limited to textbook
knowledge.
o To shape character and behaviour. As mentioned, teachers help students acquire
knowledge and this is not just what is included in the syllabus. Through this process,
the character is shaped and behaviour is moulded. The responsibility on the shoulder
is heavy.
o Foster independence. Teachers help students to be strong and independent. One of
the outcomes of effective education is independence and a strong foothold.
o To motivate students. Teachers have the capability to fire intrinsic motivation in
their students and this will help students to be successful in life.
Characteristics of a Great Teacher
1. Empathy
One of the most important good characteristics of a teacher is empathy. Let’s understand this
with an example.
For instance, if there is a student who scores well in exams but performs poorly in
assignments and discussions, you need to understand what the problem is before pushing
them to do better. The teacher should understand their position, it might be because they are
introverted, they might have some disabilities, and likewise. Empathy will help to navigate
through such situations.
2. Leadership
Teachers should have the ability to lead when a situation gets tough, and it is a characteristic
of a good teacher. Leadership skills will help in difficult situations and thus, teachers can be
role models on how children should be.
3. Patience
Teaching is not an easy job. Teachers deal with students, parents, authorities, staff, and a lot
of others on a daily basis, and this can take a toll on them it is important to stay calm at all
times because as mentioned, children look up to their teachers.
4. Passion
Teaching is a divine and difficult vocation. It requires passion and teachers should be driven
to do their best each day. Passion is an important characteristic that teachers should have so
that they can stay at the top of their game.
Levels of Teaching
The teacher has to choose the level of teaching based on the concepts and the intensity of the
subject matter. A teacher takes different roles in a classroom based on the situation. Let us
explore the levels of teaching.
There are three levels of teaching:
1. Memory Level
Memory level of teaching, as the name suggests, is a level of teaching where the objective is
just to impart the textbook knowledge and make the students memorize it rather than going to
the roots of it.
2. Understanding Level
The understanding level of teaching is a more thoughtful teaching process wherein the
students connect with the concepts and as the name suggests, understand the subject matter.
3. Reflective level
The Reflective Level of teaching is also called the introspective level of teaching. This is
considered the highest form of the teaching-learning process. This is primarily because the
teaching does not stop after making the students understand the concept.

Nature of Teaching
i) Teaching is both Science and Art
Teaching, as a process, has characteristics of both art and science. It is a practical art and not
a fine art aimed at creating beauty for its own sake. It requires improvisation, spontaneity,
handling of hosts of considerations of form, style, pace, rhythm, and appropriateness that
even computers fall behind. Effective teachers have natural instincts for teaching. It is these
instincts that make their teaching unique. Good teaching, apart from being a creative art, is
also a science that requires a good understanding of principles of teaching and a deep
knowledge of the subject matter. It also offers specific methods and skills that are attainable.
As a result, good teachers are able to transform knowledge into learning activities that
motivate students to learn.
ii) Teaching is Complex
Teaching uses all sorts of techniques, methods, and media. Teaching makes use of various
techniques or skills such as questioning, probing, exemplifying, etc. It also makes use of
various methods or models of teaching depending upon the nature of the content being
taught, objectives to be accomplished, and readiness of the learners to learn. Teaching also
makes use of such media as audio-visual media, human interaction media, print media, realia,
electronic media, etc. Success in teaching, to a great extent, depends upon selection and use
of appropriate techniques, methods, and media.
iii) Teaching Visualizes Change in Behaviour
As teachers when we teach, we have some expectations as to what changes would happen in
the behaviour of the learners. These changes can be in the cognitive (knowledge)
, psycho-motor (skills), and affective (attitudes) values of the learners. The changes that take
place in the behaviour of learners as a result of learning should be tentatively permanent. The
changes that occur in learners need not be performative but be potential ability of the
learners.
iv) Teaching can be Direct or Indirect
While teaching, teachers may resort to either direct or indirect ways of teaching. As the
teachers use such methods as lecture, demonstration, etc and engages students in face-to-face
interaction, they are teaching them directly. Conversely, when they use active methods like
role-play, project, assignment, inquiry or other such activities, they are teaching them
indirectly. As teachers, we ought to know that teaching them indirectly is a better way of
teaching as compared to teaching them directly. In indirect ways of teaching, students are at
the centre. As a result, they are actively involved in the process of learning. This gives them
chances for better understanding which leads to greater retention.
v) Teaching can be Vertical or Horizontal
Depending on the objectives of teaching, teachers may lead students deep into the topic. They
not only help students know and understand the topic but teach them higher order thinking
skills like analysis, synthesis, evaluation and creating. This type of teaching is known as
vertical teaching. Conversely, if the teachers teach one topic and then move on to more and
more topics, they are resorting to horizontal teaching. In that case, their teaching covers more
areas spreading over several topics instead of going deeper into one topic.
vi) Teaching may be Planned or Unplanned
Traditionally, teachers plan for instruction before they go to the classroom for teaching. In the
beginning of the academic year, they resort to yearly planning in which different units in the
textbook are distributed judiciously throughout the year. Thereafter, they take up each unit,
subject it to content analysis, task analysis, decide the techniques and methods to be used for
teaching. Then they decide the ways of evaluation. However, with the coming of active
leaning methods, no strict planning is possible as one is not clear in advance what could be
the possible way of organizing teaching learning activities.
Nature and characteristics of teaching

1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training.

2. Teaching is interaction between teacher and students.
3. Teaching is an art to give knowledge to students with effective way.
4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of different subjects.
5. Teaching is continuing process.
6. Teacher can teach effectively, if he has full confidence on the subject.
7. Teaching encourages students to learn more and more.
8. Teaching is formal as well as informal
9. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching, teacher imparts
information in interesting way so that students can easily understand the information.
10. Teaching is tool to help student to adjust himself in society and its environment.
Concept of Teaching
Concept of Teaching
The concept of teaching will be clearer through the definition of teaching given by different
scholars-
According to H.C Marrison (1943), “Teaching is an intimate contact between a more
mature personality and a less mature, one which is designed to further the education of the
latter”
According to John Broubacher (1939), “Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a
situation in which there are gaps and obstructions which an individual with seeking to
overcome and from which he will learn in course of doing so”
According to B.O Smith (1960), “Teaching is a system of action intended to produce
learning”
According to Burton (1963), “Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and
encouragement of learning”
1. Teaching is a complex social phenomenon. It is greatly influenced by social factors.
The social and human factors are dynamic, not static and therefore teaching is not a
fundamental concept.
2. Teaching is both art as well as science. Art is called for exercises of talent and
creativity science because it is a collection of techniques, procedures and skills that
can be systematically studied and described and improved.
3. Teaching is a professional activity involving the teacher and the students and results
in the development of the student.
4. Teaching is what a teacher does with his student for focusing the letter to learn
something.
5. Teaching is a system of actions which are varied in form and are related to content
and pupil’s behaviour in context with the prevailing physical and social conditions.
6. Teaching can be observed, analysed and assessed through teacher behaviour, pupil-
teacher interaction and the changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils.
7. Teaching is highly dominated by communication skills.
 8. Teaching is an interactive process carried out for the attainment of some specific
progress objectives.
9. Teaching may have various forms like formal and informal teaching, showing or
doing descriptive or remedial, formational or informational.
10. Teaching is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of competent skills for the
realization of a specified set of instructional objectives.
Principles of Teaching
General principles of teaching
1. Principle of definiteness of goals or objectives: Teaching should start with defining
aim and objective. The teacher and students must be clear about the goals of teaching-
learning. It helps them to be on the track. When the goals and objectives of the lesson
are determined properly it will help the teacher to plan, execute and evaluate the
phase of the teaching-learning process.
2. Principle of Planning: Planning in teaching is a very important step, teachers must
plan properly before coming to actual classroom teaching. The successful teaching-
learning process highly depends on teachers’ planning and execution in the class. The
planning includes a lesson plan, Teaching aids, Strategy and Methods of teaching.
3. Principle of flexibility and elasticity: The teaching strategy must be flexible. It
needs to be changed according to the classroom situations and the needs of students.
Teachers should be imaginative and resourceful people so that they can adapt
strategies according to the needs of the classroom environment.
4. Principle of utilization past experience: In effective teaching, the teacher must start
a lesson with questions to know about the student’s previous knowledge. Prior
knowledge could reduce the cognitive load leading to better learning engagement.
5. Principle of child centeredness: The modern education system is child centeredness.
According to the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), the students are the active
participant and the teacher are the facilitator. So, the teaching should be according to
the child’s needs, abilities and interests and teaching should be activity-based so that
students can be learned with the active participants.
6. Principle of making provision for individual differences: As we know every child
is different from each other. The teacher should be kept in mind Individual differences
while teaching and he should teach according to the children’s abilities and interests.
7. Principle of linking with actual life: According to the NCF-2005 the learning should
go beyond the four walls of the school. Teaching should be linked with real-life
experiences of everyday life. It not only motivates students but also makes them easy
to learn a lesson. In teaching, lesson teacher should give an appropriate example with
the student’s day to day life activities
8. Principle of correlating with other subjects: The correlating of one subject with
another subject is very important in order to create interest in the subject. In effective
teaching, the teacher gives correlates one subject with another to the overall
development of the students.
9. Principle of effective strategies and instructional materials: Effective strategies in
teaching are very important. The teacher should adopt effective teaching methods so
 that students can gain maximum knowledge and the teaching aids and other
instructional materials should be used effectively.
10. Principle of active participation and involvement: In modern-day education,
teaching and learning must be child centredness so that children can actively
participate in learning. The teacher should use the activity-based teaching method so
that the maximum number of students can be involved and active participants in the
teaching-learning process.
11. Principle of conducive environment and proper control: The teacher should create
such a conducive environment so that it becomes a motivating factor for learning.
There must be proper arrangement of light, furniture and other needful resources. The
teacher should maintain proper order and discipline by being sympathetic but at the
same time, he must be firm.
Psychological principles of teaching
 Principle of motivation and interest
 Principle of repetition and exercise
 Principle of change, rest and recreation
 Principle of feedback and reinforcement
 Principle of sympathy and cooperation
 Principle of providing training and senses
 Principle of utilizing group dynamics
 Principle of encouraging self-learning
 Principle of fostering creativity and self-expression
 Principle of remedial teaching.

LECTURE METHOD OF TEACHING

Definition of Lecture Method of Teaching
Lecture method of teaching is the oldest teaching method applied in educational institution.
This teaching method is one way channel of communication of information. Students’
involvement in this teaching method is just to listen and sometimes pen down some notes if
necessary, during the lecture, combine the information and organized it.
One of the problems in this method is to grab the attention of students in class room. Another
big problem is that many students in the class cannot follow the theme. Learning has a strong
influence on method of teaching.
In the lecture method, the teacher presents the learning concepts to the students. Teachers
learn different concepts beforehand and explain the concepts in a classroom. The teacher will
be actively involved in the lecture method and the students will be passively listening to the
lectures. In order to make the lectures more engaging and captivating, teachers use different
strategies. These strategies enhance the outcomes of the lecture method and improve the
learning retention rate of the students.
Concept
The lecture method is the oldest method of teaching based on the philosophy of idealism &
is an autocratic style of teaching. In this method, the teacher is more active while students
are passive listeners. This method is cantered on the presentation of content & does not
consider the learner’s abilities, interests & personality. Lecture method is the teaching
procedure comprising the presentation of content, clarification of doubts & explanation of
facts, principles & relationships.
Learning is not a simple process. The pouring process is educationally not perfect or
recommended for secondary level students. At this level it is difficult for student to pick new
concepts using lecture method of teaching. They actually are meaningful, active and
interesting experiences or activity in the class.
Skills Required for Lecture Method
Communication Skills
This is the primary skill that a teacher requires in order to excel in the lecture method. In
order to convey the ideas and concepts effectively to the students, teachers have to develop
communication skills. Communication skills allow teachers to present the concepts in a
comprehensible way to the students. In this way, students will be able to understand the
learning concepts in a better way. A teacher who has mastered the communication skills will
be able to keep the students engrossed in the class and will be able to develop an interest in
learning.
Creative Skills
The lecture method opens a sea of opportunities to explore the process of instructing students.
When the students are passively listening to the lectures there is a high chance for them to get
distracted and lose interest in learning. Hence, it is in the hands of the teacher to incorporate
different creative strategies into the lecturing methodology to instil an interest in the lectures.
Having a sense of humour would be an added benefit to teachers. This would make the
classes more fun, engaging and enjoyable for students. Teachers can also experiment with the
way they deliver a concept in the class. For instance, if a teacher is teaching a drama to the
students, he/she can deliver the dialogues using various sound modulations, tones, and sounds
that fit the setting of the scenes.
Time Management Skills
In order to improve the productivity of classroom lectures, teachers ought to have a perfect
plan and objective for each class. Teachers should ideally plan ahead to determine which key
aspects of a concept they will present in a single lecture. Moreover, they should also have an
idea regarding the outcome they want to achieve by the end of the session. When they are
dealing with a long lesson, teachers should break the lesson in such a way that it makes it
easier for the students to grasp them. Additionally, teachers should make sure they are
making the best use of the time provided and should achieve success.
Class Management Skills
Teachers should have the ability to manage the students and the classroom in order to
facilitate the lecturing process. If teachers are not able to manage the students in the class,
they will not be able to transfer ideas to the students. There will be gaps in the process of
teaching and learning and hence students fail to comprehend the concepts taught in the class.
Teachers have to master the tactics to capture the attention of the students in their classroom
and make sure that they don’t get distracted. Indulging in conversation and other activities in
the midst of a classroom can decrease the effectiveness of lectures. Hence, teachers should
make sure that students are not diverted but are focused on the lectures.
Technique Of Lecture
• Organise the class room in a way which is conducive for teaching learning activity.
• Prepare lesson plan on the topic which need to be discussed showing objectives,
content, teaching learning activity, AV aids & time
• start the lecture with introduction of self, if not introduced earlier, introduce the topic
and review the previous topic.
• Organise the content matter, which needs to be lectured in the class room.
• Alter the pitch and volume of voice periodically while lecturing.
• Develop a routine pace depending on the respectively level of students such as going
fast while teaching simple topic and slowdown in teaching difficult topics.
• Maintain eye contact and avoid looking out of windows, at walls and over student’s
head while teaching.
• Do not repeat words.
• Make use of appropriate AV aids
• Converse freely with the students. look in between the prepared notes, but do not
read the contents continuously.
 • Make use of simple plans and use key points from contents around which the whole
lecture is based
• Clarify the previous concepts before moving towards next topic.
• Manage the lecture in planned time as teaching in less time will enable students to
understand and more time than expected arise tension and damage the lecture.
Principles of Lecture Method
1. To prepare the students to undertake plans or activities: - Whenever a group of
students takes up a plan or action, it is appropriate that the teacher gives them an informal
speech. This can prevent wastage of their time and energy in finding material about the topic.
2. To clarify: - There may be some aspects in any lesson which almost all the students find
difficulty in understanding. Similarly, there may be some technical words in the lesson that
the students do not know anything about. Students may not understand many theories clearly
on their own. Through speech method the teacher can explain these technical terms and
principles etc. Students' valuable time can be saved by a few minutes of teacher's speech.
3. To provide inspiration: - Whenever a new topic is introduced in the class, the teacher can
effectively present some of its main aspects to the students by speech so that their curiosity is
satisfied. This will facilitate the students to understand when the subject matter is presented.
4. To introduce additional content: - If students want more material than what is written in
the text book, then the speech method is the best solution for this. Similarly, sometimes the
information related to a subject in books is very brief or incorrect. Here the lecture method
can be very useful. If the personal experiences of the teacher are presented in front of the
students through speech, then they can prove to be very beneficial for them, but the condition
is that the teacher knows how to present those experiences.
5. To summarize: - Sometimes students get nervous seeing the breadth of the subject matter.
Therefore, there is a need that the entire subject matter should be presented to the students in
a concise manner. This task can be easily accomplished by speech method. When students
read books after listening to the speech, their study becomes more meaningful.
6. For giving homework: - The teacher should use speech while giving homework. It is
good to give a short speech on whatever homework is given, its usefulness and how to do that
homework etc.
7. To save time: - Speech method takes less time as compared to text book method. Many
times, such occasions arise that students need to save time. The time of the students can be
saved by the speech method. Adequate subject matter can be presented in time by speech
itself, which saves time.
8. For review: - The teacher can guide the students by giving a summary of the main aspects
of a chapter through speech and can review the topic.

Purposes of the lecture method

• Stimulate thinking in students.
• Develop concentration in students.
• Achieve a very high order of cognitive objectives.
• Influence learners to inculcate the habits of listening & learning.
• Introduce new content in the classroom.
• Correlate subjects with other subjects.
• Develop problem-solving on a factual basis.
Components to the lecture method
I. Introduction to the lecture
 This is the first component of an effective lecture, & the student’s
perception & interest depend on this stage.
 It usually lasts 3-5 minutes.
 The teacher should provide a general idea & framework for the lecture’s
content in this stage so that student get familiar with the ongoing topic.
 It helps the teacher capture the student’s attention & stimulate their interest
During the introduction of the lecture, the teacher must ensure the following:
 The teacher should establish good rapport with students.
 If the first meeting with students, teachers should introduce themselves.
 Teacher should assess the students’ pre -existing knowledge.
 The teacher should relate the student’s goal & interest with the topic of
lecture.
 The teacher should clarify the objective & purpose of a lecture & describe
how it is organized.
 The teacher should introduce the topic by raising some related issues for
student participation.

II. The body of the lecture

 The body of the lecture covers the content in an organized way.
  This component is allotted the greatest amount of time in a classroom, it
includes many more teaching procedures than in introduction &
conclusion.
 The body lays emphasis on the presentation of the content.
 The teacher is more active, while students are relatively passive
participants.
 The teacher uses question-answer techniques to keep students attentive in
class. Teacher controls & plans all student activities.
 The teacher generally uses maxims of teaching to make the students
understand the concept using various example, situations, etc.
III. Conclusion
 Conclusion helps the teacher summarize & re- emphasize the key points of
the lecture & also get feedback from the students.
 The teacher can motivate the students to ask questions by focusing their
mind to specific points.
 Students can also clarify their doubts & raise questions at this stage.
Functions
• Delivers the relevant knowledge in an organized way.
• Provide references to the students to gather information.
• Provides a brief introduction on knowledge of learning before demonstrating the skill or
introducing new area of learning.
• Clarifies concepts with illustration.

Guidelines for an effective lecture

A specific topic or information should be arranged in such a way as to leave a single, clear
impression on the minds of the students.
1. A teacher should utilize different ways of presenting the same information.
 2. The teacher should have pauses in between the lesson so that the students may gain
knowledge bit by bit.
3. Pictorial illustrations such as pictures, maps, charts should be freely used as this help
in motivating the learners.
4. The learners should be encouraged to ask questions. This will enable them to clarify
their doubts.
5. Actual objects, models, diagrams, sketches should be used.
6. The lesson should divide into sections which will have logical sequence. This will
enable the learners to understand easily & also train them in systematic thinking
besides assisting them to put their own thoughts logically.
Features of Lecture Method
1. Teacher explains the matter in simple and understandable manner.
2. The method is particularly used in the secondary classes and above.
3. This method can be used to motivate students, to clarify, to review and to expand
contents.
4. Lecture method is for imparting authentic, systematic and effective information about
some events and trends.
5. It gives the students training in listening.
6. It develops good audience habits.
7. It provides opportunities of correlating events and subjects.
8. It enables the linkage of previous knowledge with new one.

Good lecture
Merits of Lecture Method
1. A well prepared and a well delivered lecture can make social studies interesting.
2. Lecture gives the teacher an opportunity to come into immediate contact with the
pupils.
3. Lecture gives the pupils training in listening and taking rapid notes.
4. Lecture saves time and energy.
5. Good lectures stimulate brighter student.
6. It facilitates rapport between the teacher and the taught.
7. It is more useful for brilliant students.
8. It helps the implementation of others.
Demerits of Lecture Method
1. Makes students inactive
2. There is a very little scope for pupil activity
3. May include irrelevant material
4. Discourage self-effort by the students
5. Every teacher is not expert enough to deliver lecture
6. The pupil lose opportunity to make self-study
7. Lecture can soon result in monotony
8. Lecturing is against the principle of 'learning by doing'
 9. An average students may not be able to fix up their attention to a lecture of 40-45
minutes
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lecture Method
Advantages of Lecture Method of Teaching
1. In this teaching method a large amount the topics can be covered in a single class
period.
2. Using of this method exclude the using of any equipment or Lab.
3. Learning material is not required.
4. Student listening skills developed.
5. Logical arrangement of the material in order to present it orally
6. Help to learn languages
Disadvantages of Lecture Method of Teaching
1. Psychologically this method is acceptable because individuals are not alike. Teacher
delivers the same lecture to both students without recognizing the individual differences.
2. Learning is an active process thus study should encourage to actively participate in the
class room instead of just listening the teacher.
3. Language using in the lecture is above the standard of the students. They are not able get
full advantage of the lecture.
4. Lecture are often forgotten by the students soon after while learning is retained if
activities are experienced.
5. Attention level is not the same while student listening the lecture.
DEMONSTRATION METHOD OF TEACHING
 Demonstration can be defined as visualized explanation of facts, concepts &
procedures. It trains, explains the students in the art of careful observation
 The demonstration method in teaching can be defined as giving a demo or performing
a specific activity or concept. In other words, the demonstration method is a teaching-
learning process carried out in a very systematic manner. Demonstration often occurs
when students have a difficult time connecting theories to actual practice or when
students are unable to understand the application of theories.
 In order to ensure, the demonstration method is a success, three things needed to be
followed-
(a) The object being displayed during the demonstration method should not be very small.
(b) During the demonstration method, clear and simple language should be used so that
pupils may understand concepts easily.
(c) The pupils should be able to question teachers in order to remove their difficulties.
The demonstration method is a great way to call for active participation from the students. A
lot of time teachers can ask the students to participate while presenting to the class. This
keeps them interested throughout rather than getting bored as compared to lectures where
they have to sit quietly for hours and listen. It is a practical way of teaching where a complex
or difficult topic can be easily explained with the help of charts, and many other props.
Concept
• A teaching method is the stimulation, guidance, direction & encouragement for
learning.
• It is important method in the teaching of nursing. It teaches by exhibition &
explanation & provides opportunities to students to apply their Acquired knowledge
& skill practically.
• This method utilizes the patient’s bedside as a live teaching field for demonstration
of a variety of nursing care situation.
Principles
• Learning by doing maxim is followed.
• Skill can be developed by limitation.
• The perception helps in imitation.
Purposes of demonstration
• To show the learner how to perform certain psychomotor skills. The learner must
reproduce the behaviour of demonstration exactly.
• To show why things occur. The behaviour is intended only as a strategy to aid the
learner’s understanding of a concept or principle.
Special purposes in nursing
• Teach new procedure either at bedside in a ward or in nursing laboratory on
simulators.
• Apply the knowledge of underlying scientific principles to nursing care situations.
• Teach uses, functioning & care of new equipment.
• Teach the application of observation techniques& skills to nursing situations.
• Teach maintenance of health & preventive healthcare measures to patients & family.
Characteristics of demonstration
 The demonstration should be carried out in a simple and easy manner. way.
 In this strategy, full attention should be paid to all the students in the class.
 Goals and objectives of the demonstration should be very clear.
  It should be carried out with a well-planned strategy.
 A set Time should be dedicated to the rehearsal before the demonstration
In Nursing
 The demonstrator should understand the entire procedure before attempting to
perform.
 All equipment needed should be assembled before demonstration.
 A positive approach should be used.
 Knowledge about the procedure should be given to students.
 The setting for a demonstration should be as real to life as possible.
Steps of Demonstration method
There are six steps of the demonstration method of the teaching process.
(1) Planning and preparation
Proper detailed planning is a prerequisite for a good demonstration. For this, the
following points should be kept in mind.
 Thorough detailed preparation of the subject matter.
 Well-structured lesson planning.
 Complete collection of material for demonstration.
 Rehearsal of demonstration.
In order to ensure the success of the demonstration method of teaching, the teacher should
prepare the lesson minutely and very seriously.
(2) Introduction of the lesson
The teacher should always try to motivate students and prepare them mentally for the
demonstration method.
The teacher should introduce the lesson to students keeping in mind the following things.
 Individual differences
 Environmental setup
 Differentiated Experiences
The lesson can also be started with some simple and interesting experiments, some
fascinating stories, or a common event that everyone can relate to.
(3) Presentation of the subject
In the demonstration method of teaching, the presentation of subject matter is very
important. The principle of reflecting thinking should be kept in mind. The teacher should
attempt to teach the student in such a way that their previous knowledge can be attached
to their new knowledge, thereby further enhancing it.
 (4) Demonstration method
The performance in the demonstration table should be ideal for the student. The
demonstration should be neat and clean.
(5) Teaching Aids
The teacher can use various teaching aids like models, blackboard, graphs, etc. during the
demonstration.
(6) Evaluation
In this last step, evaluation of the whole demonstration should be done, so that it can be
made more effective and efficient for the future.
Components of demonstration
1.Before demonstration
 Formulate behavioural objectives.
 Perform skill analysis & determine the sequence.
 Assess entry behaviour of learners &determine prerequisites.
 Formulate the lesson plan for demonstration
II. During demonstration
 State the objectives to the learner.
 Motivate learners by explaining why the skill is required.
 Demonstrate the complete skill at a normal speed.
 Demonstrate each partial skill slowly, in the correct sequence.
 Obtain feedback by questioning & observation of nonverbal behaviour.
 Avoid the use of negative examples & variations in technique.
III. After demonstration
 Provide immediate supervised practice with adequate time allowance.
 Make the environment psychologically safe by providing a friendly
atmosphere & constructive criticism.
 Discuss the point for improvement & provide constructive criticism &
feedback
Technique of demonstration
The demonstration involve three steps as follows: -
 Planning
 Performing
 Evaluation
Planning demonstration
The instructor prepares herself for: - Article and steps of demonstration.
 Conductive learning environment.
 Objective based on the need of the students.
 Steps of demonstration on rational basis.
 Rehearsals to attain proficiency in doing procedure.
 Learning environment such as facility to observe demonstration and to do
demonstrations. Student participation in demonstration of procedure.
 Checklist related to steps of demonstration, so that it can be checked that procedure is
performed in a proper way.
 Free opportunity for students to practice the skills.
Performing
Performance technique means performance of the demonstration by teacher. During
performing or implementing the demonstration teacher should use positive approach and
should exhibit a co-ordination of head, heart and hand.
The step of performing demonstration
 The teacher should proceed from whole to parts, by briefly explaining the whole
procedure, then to individual steps.
 Explain about each article in relation to its name, purpose and how to use in the
procedure.
 Make sure that each step in performed in a way, which is understandable by the
student and also explain the scientific principles associated with each step.
 In between the demonstration procedure, ask questions and encourage the students to
seek clarification.
 On completion of procedure, talk about summary, then replace articles, and wash
hand.
Evaluation
The teacher should adapt evaluation technique to ensure that student have learned the skill
appropriately. This is done by taking return demonstration and comparing the steps of
procedures with the planned set criteria of procedure.
Point to keep in mind for effective demonstration: -
 Proper planning of demonstration.
 Prepare lesion plan: - to carry out an effective demonstration.
 Suitable time and place for demonstration.
 Rehearsals of demonstration.
  Proper lighting arrangement.
 Active participation of students.
Uses of demonstration
 It is useful in demonstrating scientific experiments, procedures and application of
equipment.
 To teach the patient a procedure or treatment which one has to perform in the home.
 To demonstrate a procedure at the bedside or in the ward. Showing procedure in its
natural setting has more meaning than when carried in an artificial environment such
as classroom.
 Makes nurses patient’s relationship more effective.
Responsibilities of teachers and students in the demonstration method
Teacher’s responsibilities
Time demonstration in accordance with student’s background of knowledge and readiness for
practice of a new knowledge.
Arrange for demonstration to be similar to the actual situation as possible.
Provide students with advance information regarding activity to be demonstrated.
Arrange physical setting for demonstration
Advantages of demonstration
 It provides an opportunity for observational learning.
 It commands interest by using concrete illustration. Students can not only hear the
explanation but also see the process.
 It has a universal appeal because it is understandable to all.
 It is adaptable to both group & individual teaching.
 Return demonstration by the student under supervision of the teacher provides the
opportunity for well-directed practice before the students use the procedure on the
ward
 Questioning forms an important part of demonstration to get feedback from students
about their understanding.
 Important points & terms are mentioned on the chalkboard. The chalkboard should be
behind the teacher & in front of students.
 It activates several senses & increases learning.
 It correlates theory with practice.
 It has a particular reference to student demonstration of procedures already learned.
 It serves as a strong motivational force for students.
  Student’s interest is maintained throughout demonstration.
Disadvantages of demonstration
 Only a small group of students can be included in a demonstration.
 Keeps the students in a passive situation.
 Involves a high cost in terms of personnel& time required.
 Difficulty in repeating demonstrations to acquire competence.
Lecture – Demonstration
Its purpose is to point out relationships as they occur during a demonstration. It may be
explanation related to functions of the structure or steps of procedure and principles
associated with it.
This method is used extensively in teaching in teaching sciences and nursing subjects. It
measured factual knowledge only.

DISCUSSION METHOD OF TEACHING

Introduction:
The word ‘discuss’ has been derived from the Latin root ‘discutere’,which means to shake
or strike. A discussion is an activity of sitting and talking about a specific subject. A
discussion method is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes.
The discussion method of teaching is a process in which a small group assembles to
communicate with each other, using speaking listening and nonverbal processes in order
to achieve instructional objectives.
 Discussion Method, also called the Socratic Method after the Ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates, who would engage his students with questions and dialogue. Because the class
is small, the tutor is able to determine each student’s progress, and students have ample
occasion to make their difficulties known. There is a true meeting of the minds. A
defining feature of discussion is that students have considerable activity in the
construction of knowledge, understanding, or interpretation. Discussion require
interaction between students and teachers. Discussion involves two-was
communication between participants. In the classroom situation a teacher and students all
participate in discussion. During discussion, the teacher spends some time listening while
the students spend some time talking.

Meaning of Discussion Method

 Discussion method of teaching is a group activity involving the teacher and the
student to define the problem and seek its solution.
 Discussion method is also described as a constructive process involving listening,
thinking, as well as the speaking ability of the student.
 Usually, during classroom discussions, the instructor will first lecture for a certain
amount of time. After the lecture ends, the instructor asks students questions requiring
them to answer with concrete examples and reflect on their understanding of the topic.
Planning for discussion
There are essential planning elements in discussion.
 Choosing the discussion topic
 Phrasing the discussion question
 Outlining the topic
 Planning discussion strategy, the beginning phase
 Planning the discussion strategy, the middle phase
 Planning the discussion strategy, the end Phase.
  Choosing the discussion topic Ideally the teacher should not select the topic. It is left
for the group to select the topic.
 Phrasing the discussion questions: Once the topic is selected than the questions be
carefully phrased to the group.
 Outline the topic: Once an acceptable question is phrased, then the teacher should
start writing the aspect of the question which he feels are important.
 Planning discussion strategy (the beginning phase): At this stage the teacher
should determine what type of discussion, he will intend to launch.
 Planning discussion strategy (the middle phase): To plan the middle phase of
discussion, it is best to prepare a set of central questions which the teacher believes
need to answered.
 Planning discussion strategy (the end phase): The end phase has three important
parts,
 Drawing conclusion,
 Recapitulation
 Launching new activities.
Types of Discussion
Types of discussion are
 The symposium
 The panel discussion
 Informal group discussion
 Formal group discussion
The symposium
In this type of discussion, three or more persons present their views on a several sided
question or topic.
Group discussion
Group Discussion are organized in two forms
 Formal group discussion
 Informal group discussion
Formal group discussion
In formal group discussion there is a discussion leader and there are several recourse
members who represent special skills and specialized knowledge.
Informal group discussion :
Here the student is the leader of the discussion activities. With the help of this students can
develop leadership qualities among them.
Advantages of Discussion Method
The following are the merits of discussion method.
 Assimilates and integrate information
 Connects new with old knowledge
 Stimulates thinking
 Develop rational thinking
 Reveals student’s attitude
 Helps in evaluating problems
 Increase interest
 Develop understanding in students
 Demonstration independence
 Facilitate achievement in objectives
 Develop critics
 Develop the feelings of group work
 Promote cooperation
 Develop creativity
 Develop tolerance
 Achieves higher order objectives
 Deviation from topic
 Only few students participate
 Students become opponents
 Involves more criticism
 Time consuming
Group-discussion cannot be used as a teaching strategy but it can be used as a supplement
technique after lecture and demonstration method of teaching.
Suggestion
 Every student should be provided an opportunity to participate in the discussion
 Students should be encouraged and motivated to participate in the discussion
 Irrelevant criticism should not be encouraged.

GROUP DISCUSSION
Group discussion is an effective method of teaching &considered a learner-centric approach
of the teaching-learning process.
In a group discussion, a number of learners interact face-to- face to achieve specific
educational objective.
Group discussion is a cooperative, problem-solving activity, which seeks a consensus
regarding the solution of a problem.
Group discussion can be defined as three or more participants who have an agreed topic to
discuss & share their views in all the aspects & submit/present their views in the form of
report to bigger gathering.
Concept
 It provides an opportunity for sharing information among the members of a group.
 Members get an opportunity to attend group’s help to gain & share knowledge
necessary to achieve specific educational objectives.
 It develops the skills of group development, group balancing & group socialization in
group members under the leadership of teacher.
 A variety of information may be learned in a short time, when a number of people in a
group share their own experience & knowledge with others.
Purposes of group discussion
 There must be adequate & effective planning of the topic of discussion, educational
objectives to be achieved & environment for group discussion.
 Plenty of time & motivation must be provided to students for preparation on the topic
of discussion.
 Group leader & each member should be well aware of their moral & professional
responsibilities during group discussion.
 The teacher opens the discussion session with a brief introduction of the topic with
specific objectives
Principles
 The objective should be clearly defined and understood by all participants.
 The teacher should prepare carefully as a facilitator to guide
 Question outline should be prepared carefully
 The members of the group should come prepared; have a basic knowledge about the
topic to be discussed.
 Leader needs to guide and coordinate the proceedings so that the discussion should be
kept to the point.
  Record the main points of discussion
 Each one in the group should feel free to participate and a shy person should be
encouraged to contribute
 Discussion should be properly ended with a report.
Preparation and conduct of discussion method
Steps
1. Orientation
2. Engagement
3. Debrief
1. Orientation
 Provide the discussion topic.
 Clearly describe the question
 Explain how students have to prepare for discussion
 Explain how the discussion will be conducted
 Encouraged the students to think
2. Engagement
 Develop an environment
 Present clear question to focus the discussion
 Start by asking students to define the terms
 If necessary, help the students.
 Wait for each student to answer the question
 Refocus discussion
 Keep a progressive record
 Close discussion by summarizing or evaluating
3. Debrief
 Allow time for students to make their own notes.
 Facilitate student reflection on what they learnt.
Advantages
 Emphasis on learning instead of teaching
 Participation by every body
 Fostering democratic way of thinking
 Training in reflective thinking
 Training in self-expression
 Made interest
Disadvantages
 More time and effort
 May not be end with solution
 Teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership
 Success of discussion is based on good preparation
 It may create emotional stress
 Not effective in describing procedures
 Few students may dominate in discussion

SYMPOSIUM
Introduction of symposium
Symposium techniques is a type of discussion where two or more speakers talk for 10-20
minutes, develop individual approaches or solution to a present aspect of a policy, process or
programme. It is an instructional technique that is used to achieve higher cognitive and
effective objective.
Meaning of symposium
The word symposium has several dictionary meanings. Plato used this term for good dialogue
to present views towards God.Another meaning of the intellectual recreation or enjoyment.
Definition
Symposium defined as a teaching technique that serves as an excellent method for informing
the audience, crystallizing their opinion and preparing them for arriving at decision regarding
a particular issue or a topic.
Symposium is a discussion method in which different viewpoints on a single aspect of a topic
is discussed.
Symposium is a series of speeches on single aspect of a topic.
Objective of symposium:
 To identify and understand various aspect of the theme and problem.
 To develop the ability to come to a decision and provide judgement regarding a
problem.
 To develop values and feelings regarding a problem.
 To enables the listeners form policies regarding a theme problem.
 To boost student’s abilities to speak in the group.
Purposes
• To identify and understand various aspects of a theme.
 • To develop the ability, arrive a decision and provide judgement for a problem.
• To develop values and feelings regarding a problem.
• To provide understanding to the students or listeners on a theme or problem to
specifically develop certain values and feelings.
• To enable the listeners form policies regarding a theme or a problem.
• To investigate a problem from several points of view.
• To boost students' abilities to speak in the group.
• To encourage the students to study independently.

Characteristics
• Symposium provides a broad understanding of a topic or problem.
• The listener is provided with an opportunity to take decisions about a problem.
• This method is used in higher classes for specific theme or a problem.
• It develops a feeling of cooperation and adjustment.
• Symposium technique helps in achieving the objectives of synthesis and evaluation.
• It provides different views on the topic of the symposium.
Principles of symposium
 The speech may be persuasive, argumentative and informative.
 Original presentation is objective and accurate.
 Always include a summary at conclusion.
 Each speech without interruption.
 The chairmen of the symposium introduce the topic, suggests its importance and
sometimes indicates the general approaches.
Scope for symposium:
 Use of television for education.
 Scope for the distance education in our education.
 Use of essay and objective type of test
 Semester Cause system in education. of student unrest.
 Quality control of education research. of microteaching inteacher education.
 Use of team teaching in school.
 Use of action research in classroom teaching.
 Scope of education technology in our education.
Mechanism of symposium:
  The symposium is a type of discussion, in which two or more speakers, talk from ten
to twenty minutes, develop individual approaches or solutions to a problem or present
aspect of policy, process or program.
 The speeches are followed by questions or comments from the audience, as in the
panel forum. The speeches may be persuasive, argumentative, informative or
evocative. Each speech proceeds without interruption.
 The chairman of the symposium introduces the topic, suggests something of its
importance, sometimes indicates the general approaches.
 Since, there is no need for symposium interaction other than careful listening, all
members of the performing group can sit in a straight line behind a table or an
adjoining chair, with the chairman in the middle or to one side of the speakers. Or, if
the symposium is to present two conflicting points of view, the seating arrangement
can separate the speakers on the platforming order to indicate difference in opinion or
in order to preserve peace
Criteria in use of symposium technique:
There are three criteria in the use of the symposium technique:
 Firstly, the moderator should be sure to prepare the speakers or see that they are
prepared. They should know the rules of procedure, sequence of speaking, and the
way in which the forum will be conducted; and they should be aware of the ideas, and
background of other performers.
 Secondly, the chairman is responsible for preparing the agendas, should not attempt to
stack the cards by omitting or ignoring vital phases of the problem as he selects or
delegates his speakers. It is not good to face up to an in advertent misinterpretation or
omission.
 Thirdly, the chairman in the forum situations must plan very carefully for the
questioning period that followers the prepared speeches, unless he wishes to risk
boredom
Technique of symposium:
 Teacher should plan the program ahead of time.
 Each member of the class, as well as the student speakers should know the objectives
of the symposium and breadth of the topic.
 Each student should prepare on the given or accepted topic.
 The teacher should have a conference with each of the student speakers.
 The teacher or a student may function as a chairman.
  The symposium starts with the chairman introducing the topic.
 Next chairman introduces the speakers.
 Then the topic is presented by the students taking 15 to 20minutes time.
 As a conclusion at the end the chairman gives a brief summary of all the speeches and
opens the discussion to the students
 Any question or contributions addressed through the chairman.
Guidelines For Conducting Symposium:
1. All members of the performing group can sit in straight line behind a table or in adjoining
chairs with the chairmen in the middle or to one side of the speakers.
2. The chairmen of the symposium introduce the topic and suggest something of its
performance.
3. Two or more speakers talk for 10 to 20 minutes.
4. The speech are followed by questions or comments from the audiences as in the panel
form.
Precautions For Symposium:
 The moderator should be sure to prepare the speakers or see that they are prepared.
 The chairman is responsible for preparing the agendas, should not attempt to stack the
cards, by omitting or ignoring the vital phases of the problem as he/she selects or
delegates his/her speakers.
 The chairman should plan carefully for the questioning period.

Limitations of Symposium Technique:

 The chairmen have no control over the speakers as they have full freedom to prepare
the theme for discussion. They can present any aspect of the theme or problem.
 There is a probability of repetition of the content because every speaker’s theme as a
whole.
 The different aspects of a theme are presented simultaneously. Therefore, the listeners
are not able to understand the theme correctly.
Advantages of Symposium:
 It is suited to a large group or classes.
 Used to present broad topics for discussions at conventions and organization
meetings.
 Organization is a good because of the set speeches beforehand.
  Gives deeper insight to the topic.
 Directs the students continuously in dependent study.
 Hands itself to the teaching of clinical subjects.
 This method can be use in political meetings
Disadvantage of Symposium:
 Inadequate opportunity for all the students to participate actively.
 The speech is limited to 15-20 minutes.
 Limited audience participation.
 Question and answer limited to 3-4 minutes.
 Possibility of overlapping of subjects.
 There is a probability of repetition of the conduct.
 The listeners remain passive in the symposium.
 The discussion and presentation of the theme is not summarized at the end.
 This technique is employed to achieve the higher objectives of cognitive domain but
affective are not emphasized properly.

PANEL DISCUSSION
A panel discussion is one of several approaches to teaching about specific subject. Other
methods include lectures, group discussions, media presentations, including slides and
films, and role playing. Each method has distinct advantages and disadvantages
depending on the subject matter, the size and composition of the audience or class and the
resources available. Panel discussion is a discussion in which a few persons carry out a
conversation in front of an audience.
Origin
This technique used at the first time by Prof. Herry.A-Overstreet in 1929. He organized a
discussion for small group for definite period for the audience. At the end of the
discussion audience had also participated. The important questions were put by the
audience on the topic & the experts tried to solve the questions which were not included
in the discussion
Definition
 A Panel discussion is a method of teaching in which four to eight persons or students
discuss the assigned topic/ problem/ issues creatively among themselves in front of an
audience
Purpose
 To provide information and new facts.
 To identify the values.
 To analyse the current problem from different angle.
 To organize for mental recreation.
 To influence the audience to an open-minded attitude and respect for other's opinion.
 When handled intelligently and creatively, panel discussion stimulates thoughts and
discussion and clarifies thinking
Objectives
The following are the main objectives of the panel discussion
 To provide information & new facts
 To analyse the current problem
 To identify the values
 To organize for mental recreation
 To find out the solution of current problem
 To provide the full understanding of significant topic
Principles of Panel Discussion
 It observes the democratic principles of human behaviour
 Equal opportunities are provided to every participant.
 It encourages the active participation with originality & independently
 It involves the social & psychological principles of group work
 It should be feeling, co-operation & sympathy
 To respect the ideas of others or each other
 It is based on modern – theory of organization
 It organizes teaching at reflective level that must be thoughtful
 It should be employing independent thinking of the participants
Types
1. Public Panel Discussion.
2. Educational Panel Discussion
Public Panel Discussion
• Public Panel Discussion is organized for the common man's problems.
 • The public panel discussion is organized through television programmes.
The objectives achieved by public panel discussion are:
1. To provide factual information regarding current problems.
2. To determine social values.
3. To recreate the common man.
Educational Panel Discussion
 Is used in educational institutions to provide factual and conceptual knowledge
and clarification of theories and principles.
The objectives achieved through educational panel discussions are as follows:
1. To provide factual and conceptual knowledge.
2. To raise awareness of theories and principles.
3. To provide solutions for certain problems.
Guidelines
 Identify / help participants to identify an issue or topic that involves an important
conflict in values and interest. The topic may be a topical question, a hypothetical
incident, a student experience or an actual case.
 Select panellist who are well informed and have specific points of view regarding
the chosen topic.
 Usually, a panel discussion includes 3-5 panellist.
 Select a leader or chairperson / moderator for the panel discussion.
 Decide on the format of the panel discussion.
 The panel discussion must be rehearsed before the actual panel discussion.
Procedure of Panel Discussion
Types Of Members in Panel Discussion
1. Instructor
2. Moderator
3. Panelists
4. Audience
1. Instructor
 Plays an important role in panel discussion.
 Plan how, where, and when the panel discussion organized.
 Prepares the schedule for panel discussion.
 Sometimes rehearsals also planned.
2.Moderator
  Keeps the interaction on the theme and encourages interaction among members.
 Summarizes and highlights the points.
 Should have mastery over the theme or problem of the discussion.
3.Panelists
 There are 4-10 panelists in the discussion.
 Members sits in the semi -circle shape Infront of the audience.
 The moderator sits in the middle of the panelists.
 All the panellists should have mastery over the subject matter.
4. Audience
 Audience is allowed to put questions and seek clarifications.
 They can put forward their point of view and their experiences regarding the theme.
 The panelists answer.
 In some situations, the moderator also tries to answer the questions.
 At the end, the moderator summarizes the discussion and present his point of views.
 He expresses thanks to the panelists and audience.
Organizing a Panel Discussion
 Select a chairperson / moderator, the panellists and the audience.
 The panel discussion consists of 4-8 panellist along with the chairperson or
moderate seated in a semicircle facing the audience.
 The chairperson or the moderator should be selected with care because the success
of the panel discussion depends on the leadership of the moderator.
 The moderator must keep the discussion to the subject and ensure that all
members of the panel get an equal opportunity to express their views.
 The chairperson should be a neutral refree and begin the panel discussion by
exploring the whole proceedings.
 The members of the panel are first introduced by name and background of
experience. The topic is announced and the limit of discussion is stated.
 The moderator may start the procedure rolling by making a comment or by
directing a question to a particular person.
 The panel discussion should provide a natural setting in which the audience will
have the opportunity to ask questions, evaluate replies and make constructive
contributions.
 The moderator co-ordinates the discussion and makes sure the discussion is
carried on in a conversational way.
  The moderator clarifies an issue or mis conception and may also introduce another
thought so that the subject is fully covered. Then the moderator summarizes the
main points presented by the speakers and invites the audience to contribute and
ask questions.
 Finally, the moderator sums up the discussion.
Importance Of Panel Discussion
1.This technique encourage social learning.
2.These higher cognitive and effective objectives are achieved.
3.It is used to develop the ability of problem solving and logical thinking.
4. It develops the interests and high type of attitude towards the problem.
5. It develops the capacity to respect others’ ideas and feelings and ability of tolerance.
6. It provides the opportunities of assimilation of theme and content.
Characteristics
1.It is used at college and university level to organize teaching at reflexive level.
2.It develops the ability to problem solving.
3.It provides the opportunity to understand nature of problem.
4.It develops ability of presentation of theme and giving their point of view logically.
5. It develops right type of attitude and ability to tolerate anti-ideas of others.
6. It develops the ability of creative thinking and to criticize the theme.
7. It develops the manners of putting questions and answering questions.
Limitation
The following are the limitation of this technique.
1. There are chances to deviate from theme at time of discussion, hence the purpose of the
panel discussion is not achieved.
2. Some members dominate the discussion and do not provide the opportunities to participate
other in discussion.
3. There is possibility to split. The group into two subgroups i.e. for and against the theme.
Do’s Don’t,s
 Panel discussion must be organized well in advance as to who is to do what and when.
 There should be complete information about the audience
 Panelists must be prepared with their talks.
 Follow the time limits.
 Panelists must keep calm and confident.
 Do not interfere when the other panelists is doing his/her talk.
  Avoid questions from the audience.
 Do not fidget or slouch in your seat.
 Be honest in approach.
Advantages
 Different points of views are expressed by the speakers.
 The quick exchange of facts, ideas and opinions help students to sharpen their
critical thinking and better judgement.
 Students learn to discuss topics of in conversational forms in s small group in
front of large group.
Disadvantages
 Panel discussion requires more time for planning, organizing and presentation.
 The discussion may be vague and superficial if the panel members lack mastery.
The effectiveness of the method depends on :
1. The competency and preparation of the panel members.
2. The competency and leading abilities of the chairperson or the moderator.
3. Planning, organizing and conducting the panel discussion.

SEMINAR METHOD
The seminar method is the most modern and advanced method of teaching. A seminar
is an advanced group technique which is usually used in higher education. It is an
instructional technique it involves generating a situation for a group to have a guided
interaction among themselves on a theme. It refers to a structured group discussion
what usually follows a formal lecture or lectures often in the form of an essay or a
paper presentation on a theme.
This seminar method is employed to realize the higher objectives of cognitive &
affective domains. The higher learning process requires the interactive and integrated
methodologies based on the psychological principles. The seminar method applies such
technique of human interaction / intervention with the learning and teaching
experiences.
Aim & Objectives of Seminar Method:
This seminar method is utilized to realize the higher objectives of cognitive and affective
domains.
Cognitive objectives
i. To develop higher cognitive abilities.
ii. To develop the ability of responding in this manner would involve higher cognitive
actions.
iii. To develop the ability of keen observation of experience, feelings and
iv. To develop the ability to seek clarification and defend the ideas of others
effectively.
Affective objectives
i. To develop the feeling of tolerance to the opposite ideas of others.
ii. To develop the feelings of co-operation with other colleagues and respect of the ideas
and feelings of others.
iii. To develop the emotional ability among the participants of the seminar.
iv. To acquire the good manners of putting questions and answering the questions of
others effectively.
The human interaction under this technique develops the good manners and
skills among the participants. Provide a good learning and scholastic
experience to the participants of seminar.
Pre-requisites (Basic Principles) to be included in the seminar:
 This seminar method depends with the lingual, social and emotional instances and
its maturity level.
 The complex and undefined concept or article must be read and discussed for the
meaningful learning experiences and new concept.
 Group discussion is emphasized. The kernel of seminar is stressed.
 The value and success of the seminar depends on the path of the learner and their
learning experiences through the discussion. The learner can advocate and interact
in group discussion with his experiences and concept derived. Both the group and
learner can transform their ideas and to derive a new conclusion also be
anticipated.
 In the lower level of learning experiences, the concepts are explanatory but in this
higher level of learning experience the theme or concept cantered and need more
evidences and explanations through the discussion.
 The interactions in this method develop observation and questioning skills,
evaluation skills using their own learning experience.
Advantages and special features of Seminar Method.
 This seminar method gives good motivation and learning experience.
 Help to evaluate the learn-ability of learners.
  Regulate the creating and organizing of facts and information.
 Dissemination and retrieval of information is scientifically managed.
 Develop the self-reliance and self-confidence.
 Also inculcates the responsibility and cooperative nature.
 This method is the best for socialization.
 Students’ interaction is possible in participation and production of teaching
learning process.
 Traditional monotony is abolished in this method.
 Ensures the understandability and enhances the capability of the students learning.
 Seminar is always subject / theme specific, so that sufficient knowledge about the
concerned subject can be developed.
 The presenter or the reader of the article can get further clarifications in his
subject.
 Develop the questioning skills.
 The data processing and analysis also play a vital role in this method.
 This makes teaching and learning process lively.
 The student receives good information from his teacher and the fellow students.
 A seminar does not end in the premises after the completion of discussion, the
group in smaller groups carries on the discussion in informal settings in off
campus. This is certainly a strong advantage of using seminar method.
Types of Seminar
Seminars are conducted in various stages. Based on the size and organizational aspects
the seminars can be classified in to four types.
1. Mini seminar
2. Major seminar
3. National seminar
4. International seminar
Mini seminar:
Its coverage and scope are small and simple. A small population is enough to hold this
seminar. A discussion held over the topic taught or to be taught with the students is
known as Group discussion. Such group discussions held in an organized way within a
class room, it is called mini seminar. This mini seminar gives the students training in
questioning skills, organizing the information and presentation skills of seminar. A mini
seminar is felt necessary because it gives good experience to conduct a major seminar at
 Institutional level.
Major seminar:
The seminar conducted at an institutional or departmental level for a specific topic or
subject is known as Major seminar. Usually, students and teachers are participating in this
type of seminar. This major seminar can be organized at department level for every
month. A specific topic or subject is selected for the theme of the seminar.
National seminar:
An association of any kind particularly with academic or professional interest or an
organization (Government, Firm, etc.,) conducts the seminar at National level is called
National seminar. The subject experts are invited to the seminar for discussion. The
Secretary of the seminar prepares the schedule and functionaries for seminar.
International seminar:
Usually, the seminar conducted by an international organization or agency is
known as international seminar. Theme of this seminar has wider aspects. Globalization,
Renovation, Atomic energy agreements, Policies implementation and modification etc.,
are examples for themes of international seminars. A Nation or its body can conduct or
organize the international seminar.
Seminar Committee:
Seminar is conducted or organized by the committee proposed for this purpose only. This
committee constitutes a chairperson, Organizing Secretary and subject experts who are
expertise in the theme proposed for seminar. The organizing committee guides and helps
with the functions of Chairperson and organizing secretary. Usually, a seminar has been
conducted with the following team of organizing body.
1. Chairperson or President / Convenor of Seminar
Naturally, She/he may be the apex person of the Institution / Department / Government /
Firm / Policy maker of the concerned body or agency.
2. Organizing Secretary of Seminar
Usually, he is nominated by the Chair person or President of the Seminar committee. She
must be a good administrator and subject expert in the field proposed theme of the
seminar. He must be the person of tolerance and capable of doing things in right time
with right persons.
3. Chairperson of the Technical Session of seminar
She must be the person with expertise in the theme proposed for the seminar. She would
have a good experience to perform all the activities of technical session which is vital to
the seminar.
4. Speaker of Seminar
She is the active participant of seminar presenting his / her paper among the other
participants in the presence of Chair Person of Technical session of seminar.
5. Participants / Paper presenters of seminar
The people who are presenting papers and observing the paper presentation by
participating in the seminar are termed as Paper presenters and Participants of the
seminar.
Merits of Seminar method:
 Naturally, the spontaneous learning can be achieved effectively in this method.
 Seminar is usually learner cantered.
 Information seeking and retrieval behaviour is encouraged very much in
 this method.
 The learner himself prepares and compiles his own paper for the seminar gives
readiness of mind and learning becomes structured.
 Learning by doing is encouraged in this method.
 The paper presenter / participant receives a reinforced learning experience from
the Group discussion.
 Learning experiences is highly structured by the learner himself.
 The teacher or chairperson of technical session only plays the Guidance and
instructional role.
 Develops cognitive, affective domains-based learning.
 Norms of behaviour is developed and reinforced.
 Develops open mindedness, suppress the subjective ideas from the learners.
 The interactions and interrogations develop the spirit of information seeking
behaviours (norms of behaviour)
 The data processing skills, compilation skills, communication skill are easily
inculcated in this method.
 Learner gets in-depth knowledge of the subject he presented.
 This method built better social values and fault tolerance levels in the minds of
learner.
Limitations of Seminar method
  Setting up of a seminar for every topic in the Text is not feasible.
 The subject area to be taught must be relevant to the theme of the seminar.
 The seminar themes must conform the learning experiences to be inculcated to the
students.
 This method found fit for higher learning only.
 Implementation of this method for lower classes is cumbersome.
 Only matured and balanced minded teachers can make this method successful.
 The teacher must be resourceful (both in academic and administrative) in nature.
 Time management is somewhat difficult.

WORKSHOP
Introduction
The word workshop is related to any area that provides both space & tools required for the
manufacture & repair of goods. Similarly, in educational workshops, experts provide
knowledge & skills to deal with problem.
Definition of workshop
Workshop is a meeting during which experienced people in responsible positions come
together with expert & consultants to find solutions for the problem that cropped up in the
course of their work& they have had difficulty in dealing with on their own. It is a large
discussion method.
Workshop is defined as assembled group of 10-25persons who share a common interest or
problem. They meet together to improve their individual skill of a subject through intensive
study, research, practice & discussion.
Essential features of workshop
 Complete active involvement by the participants.
 The whole point of attention is to work & learn from practical experiences.
 Participants may have to work as reporters or a leader.
 Workshop offers each member an opportunity to make his own contribution.
Purposes
 Workshop method increases the learner's motivation as it allows the learners to
prepare and select objectives.
  Offering an opportunity to the participant to play an active role makes teaching more
effective.
 Improve a person's attitude towards other people.
 Helps in learning better human relations.
 Every learner has a worth and contributes to the common goals.
 Cooperation is a technique and way and is the primary way in the workshop method
of teaching.
Objectives of a workshop
 To achieve a higher cognitive objective and develop psychomotor skills.
 To learn the new innovations and practices of education
 To put people in situation where they will evaluate their own efforts.
 To solve problems in the area of teaching education
 To develop the proficiency for planning and organizing teaching and instructional
activities.
 To provide a broad understanding of a topic and theme
 To provide an opportunity for personal growth through accepting and working
towards a goal held in common with others
 To provide a rationalized and philosophical background for instructional and teaching
situation
Principles of workshop
 Allowing the participants to prepare & select objectives to be reached will increase
the participant’s motivation.
 Giving the participant an active role will make teaching more effective.
 Improve a person’s attitude towards other people.
 Learn better human relations.
 Every individual has worth & contributes to the common goals.
 Cooperation is a technique & a way of life that is superior to competition & is a
primary factor to be allowed.
Objectives of the workshop
 To learn the new innovations & practices of education
 To solve problems in the area of teaching education
 To provide a broad understanding of a topic & theme
 To provide a rationalized & philosophical background for instructional & teaching
situation
  To put people in a situation where they will evaluate their own efforts.
 To develop the proficiency for planning & organizing teaching & instructional
activities.
 To provide an opportunity for personal growth through accepting & working towards
a goal held in common with others Cognitive Objectives Psychomotor Objectives
Preparation of a workshop
1. Opening a file: A suitable system might be a loose leaf with the following sub
division: budget, workshop sitting arrangement, selection of participants,
documentation & equipment checklist, publicity press & evaluation.
2. Formulation of aims & objectives: Aims &objectives of the workshop should be
formulated for the participants as well as the organizers. At the first stage of the
workshop, theoretical aspects are discussed by experts on the theme of the workshop.
3. Arrangement of funds: The whole programme & schedule is prepared by the
organizer. He has to arrange for the funds needed for boarding &lodging facilities for
participants as well as experts.
4. Choosing the date & place: For the first day of the workshop, a nonworking day is
usually selected. Ensure that at least one working day precedes the opening of the
workshop. While selecting a place, it should be kept in mind that the place should
enable the participants to take part in all activities without interruption.
5. Identifying the experts or resource person: In organizing a workshop, resource
persons play an important role in providing theoretical & practical aspects of the
theme. They provide guidance to participants at every stage & train them to perform
the task effectively.
6. Selection of participants: The participants should be keen or interested in the theme
of the workshop. Number of participants, type of participants & voluntary
participation should be specified.
7. Identifying the sponsors: People in administrative positions should be represented as
committees that will be called on to apply the selection criteria defined earlier.
8. Working language: The workshop is usually carried out in a national language or
preferred one.
9. Invitation to the participants: A personal letter should be sent to the participants
selected with the following points:
 Aims of the workshop
 What is implied by the workshop
  Working methods of the workshop
 Theme of the workshop
Roles in workshop
 Role of Organizer of the Workshop Technique.
 Role of Convener in First Stage.
 Role of Experts or Resource persons.
 Role of Participants or Trainees

Role of an organizer
 The program and schedule is prepared by the organizer.
 He has to arrange for boarding and lodging facilities for participants as well as for the
experts.
Role of a convenor
 At first stage of the workshop, the theoretical aspects are discussed by the experts on
the theme of the workshop.
 Therefore, a convener is nominated or invited who is well acquainted with the theme
or the workshop.
 He has to conduct workshop at this stage and he has to observe the formalities and
key note of the workshop.
Role of experts
 In organizing a workshop, resources persons play an important role in providing
theoretical and practical aspects of the theme.
 They provide guidance to participants at every stage and train them to perform the
task effectively
Role of a trainee
 The participants should be keen or interested in the theme of the workshop.
 At the first stage, they have to acquire understanding of the theme.
 At the second stage, they have to practice and perform the task with great interest and
seek proper guidance from the experts.
Outcomes of the workshop
 Widening specified knowledge
 Professional & personal growth
 Friendships, team spirit & human relations.
Advantages
  Develops knowledge along with the psychomotor skills.
 Retention of the knowledge and skills by the learners are better than the other
methods.
 Facilitates learning by doing.
 Suits disciplines that are practice oriented.
Disadvantages
 Generally, follow up are not organized in workshop technique.
 It requires a lot of time for participant and staff.
 A large number of staff members are needed to handle participation.
 It demands special facilities or materials.
 Participants do not take interest in practical work or to do something in productive
form.
 The workshop cannot be organized for large group so large number of persons cannot
be not trained.

ROLE PLAY
Introduction
Role-playing is the spontaneous acting out of a clearly-defined situation by two or more
persons for subsequent discussion by the whole class. Role-playing is a teaching method
where a group of participants act out the assigned role to deliver the content of topic to be
taught to the participants. In a role-playing group, the members play the assigned role the
way they think the character would act in reality which helps in arousing feelings& elicit
emotional responses in learners where cognitive & affective domain learning may be
achieved.
Meaning of role play
Role-play is a technique that allows students to explore realistic situations by interacting with
other people in a managed way in order to develop experience and trial different strategies in
a supported environment.
Definition
 Role-playing is an educational method in which people spontaneously act out
problems of human relations & analyze the enactment with the help of other role
players & observers.
  Role-playing is a discussion technique that makes it possible to get maximum
participation of a group through acting out an example of some problem or idea under
discussion.
Purposes of Role-Play
 To present interpersonal problems.
 To provide emotional & affective stimulus for solving problems.
 To provide awareness about social & psychological issues.
 To develop a situation for an analysis.
 To prevent alternative courses of action.
 To prepare for meeting future situations.
 To develop an understanding of others points of view.
 To convey information to develop specific skills.
Principles of Role-Play
 As a teaching technique, role-play is based on the philosophy that meanings are in
people & not in words or symbols. If the philosophy is accurate, we must first of all
share the meanings, then clarify our understanding of each other’s meanings, &
finally, if necessary, change our meanings.
 In the language of phenomenological psychology, this has to do with changing the
self-concept.
 Creating teaching situations that can lead to change of self-concept requires a distinct
organizational pattern.
 Role-play should be flexible.
 It should be a stimulant to think & should not be an escape from the discipline of
learning. There is no single best method of selecting the characters; the group may do
the assigning.
 It requires rehearsal as an important feature to produce effective outcome & for
audience to help players interpret their roles.
 Role-play should be done for a brief period so that the attention of audience may be
captured effectively.
 Enough time should be allowed for discussion & analysis of the situation.
 It evaluates the teacher & participants through discussion or follow-up as to specific
individual behaviour or sequence of group actions.
Value of Role-playing
1. The actor really tries to feel the part of character.
 2. Enjoyed by the people who do it.
3. Doesn’t need equipment.
4. Involves a group through participation.
5. Arouses interest in a problem.
6. Makes a problem seem real to a group.
7. Helps to understand the point of view.
8. Trains leadership skill.
9. The student not only hears about a problem or talks about it, but he lives through it.
10. Helps to develop new skills for dealing with problems in human relations.
11. It is the way of presenting human relations problems, because the student can
experiment with behaviour, make mistakes and try new skill without changing the
hurts that experimentation in real- life situation may involve.
Types of role play
1. Socio-drama
2. Psycho-drama
Socio-drama
 It deals with interaction of people with other individuals or groups, eg mother,
nurse, leader, etc.
 It always involves situations of more than one person and deals with problems that
majority of the group face in executing their roles.
Psychodrama
 It is mainly practiced in group setting, mainly concerned with the unique needs
and problems of a particular individual.
 It should not be attempted except under the guidance of a trained therapist.
Constructing a role-play
The key steps in constructing a role-play are:
 Define Aims and Objectives (practice skills, explore concepts, etc.)
 Define setting/placement
 Define clear role descriptors
 Define time limit
 Define observer tasks (if any)
 Define ground rules of safety and feedback
 Define debriefing agenda
 Define facilitator tasks
 Steps In Role Play
There are three steps They are:
 Planning phase
 Implementation phase and Evaluation phase
 Summarize phase
1. Planning phase
During the planning phase the following points are to be considered:
 Selecting a problem for a role
 Set up the role play scene
 Getting underway in role play
 Making the role play comprehensive
The group leader recognizes a problem that can be effectively role played and suggests it to
the group. The group can list problems on the blackboard and decide problem they want work
out
Set up role play scene
 The group should come to a clear agreement on the chief objectives to be realized in
role planning
 The group must determine: – what characters are to be involved – The attitudes and
personality of the character – the setting of the story – the point at which the story
should begin
Getting underway in role play
 The role takers are usually gone out of the room and are given a few minutes to warm
up or get a feeling of the roles they are about to play
 Specify names other than their own, should be used to get them into their roles.
 The role players should attempt to express the attitudes the group has assigned to the
various characters as well as achieve the goals decided upon.
 The story grows out of natural reactions of the characters enacted in role playing.
 Those members not involved in the role play act as observers. They may be assigned
to watch particular role players or to look for important clues that come out of role
playing
Making the role play comprehensive
 The leader may cut at a point where enough action has already occurred to provide a
basis for discussion
  The leader may get immediate reaction of role players: how they felt in their roles and
how they responded to others response in the scene
 The leader may use the role name of each person in the discussion so that the players
does not feel he is being evaluated
 When role players succeed in projecting themselves into their roles assigned to them,
they usually give valuable insight into the problem and provide additional material for
discussion
2. Implementation & evaluation of a role play
 As the audience observers constitute the heart of role playing, we usually consider
their opinion as important feedback
 Feedback is sought as to how did the group think the role was handled, what were the
good points of action, or what were the poor points or omissions
3. Summarize phase
 The leader sums up to the group chief points or principles which have come out in the
playing and the comments of the observers that follow
 The comments on specific problems should be taken under consideration
Advantages of role-play
 Develop real communication skills in leadership, interviewing & social interaction &
obtain constructive feedback from peers.
 Develop sensitivity to another’s feelings by having the opportunity to put oneself in
another’s place, by noting there is a difference between what a person says & what a
person says & what a person does & develop empathy & understanding.
 Develop skills in group problem solving.
 Develop an ability to observe & analyse situation.
 Practice selected behaviours in a real-life situation without the stress of making a
mistake.
 In a teaching-learning situation, role-play provides the opportunity to: Note
individual student needs by observing & analysing student needs in a simulated real-
life situation. Assist the students in meeting their own needs by either giving them or
encouraging group members to give them on the spot suggestions. Encourage
independent thinking & action by stepping aside or giving indirect guidance as
emphasis is on the students helping themselves.
Disadvantages of role-play
 Role-play is a means, not an end.
  It requires expert guidance & leadership.
 Participants may sometimes feel threatened.
 It is used as an education technique, not as a therapeutic one, strongly dependent on
student’s imagination.
 It is time consuming in developing group readiness, should not be used when time
constraints are present.
 It is limited only by the teacher’s ingenuity & realistic use.
Role of teacher in role play method of teaching.
 Teacher has important role in role play. At first teacher defines the problems with
acting manner. The teacher should give correct information related to the topic. The
teacher can show some pictures in understanding purpose. Teachers should give
adequate time to discussion the topic.
 The teacher should make the role play flexible and brief. It should not be more than
10-15 minutes. Analysis and evaluation is important of the learning benefits.

PROJECT METHOD
Introduction
The project method has been recognized as a teaching technique since many years; it has its
primary inception in the field of agriculture sciences where students carried out some planned
creative activities in a natural environment or planned work field to produce certain products.
This method is a teaching method where students learn to work individually or in a group to
achieve pre planned learning objectives
Definition of project method
 According to Prof. Ballard, ‘A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into
the school, further in project method, learning by living; this life has spontaneity,
purpose, significance & interest, freedom.’
 According to Williams Kilpartrick, ‘Project method is a whole-hearted, purposeful
activity proceeding in a social environment.’
 According to Stevenson, ‘A project method is a problematic act carried to completion
in its natural setting.”
Characteristics of a Good Project Method
 The method aims at teaching the learner to get the best out of life.
 An attempt to use experience, trust & the best master whose lessons are unforgettable.
 The project method gives an opportunity for self- expression.
  The experiments of the project method want tore set the whole curriculum & break all
barriers of the subject matter.
 The project matter proposes the whole sequence of activities involved in complete
understanding.
 A project can be large unit of appreciation learning or of attitude development that
increases motors kills & technical knowledge.
 A project is a play activity & learners are engaged in carrying out the activity.
 The project method is complete surrender to the learner’s point of view.
 An attempt is made to establish a positive relation with life.
 The project method lends itself naturally to group work.
 It is a large unit plan of teaching.
Types of projects
Individual and Social projects: In individual project all students solve the problem in their
own according to their interest, capacity, attitude and needs.
Group projects: Group projects the problem is solved by the group of pupils in the class.
Here the social, citizenship qualities and synergism are develops.
Simple and Complex project: In the simple projects the students are completing only one
work at a time. It gives the deep information about the project in a one angle. The students
get deeper and broader knowledge about the problem.
In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work at a time. They are
focuses on the work in various subject and angles. Here the students get the knowledge about
the work in various activities and dimensions.
According to Kilpatrick there are four types of projects method:
1. Constructive project/ projector: Practical or physical tasks such as construction of
article, making a model, digging the well and playing drama are done in this type of projects.
2. Aesthetic project: Appreciation powers of the students are developed in this type of
project through the musical programmes, beautification of something, appreciation of poems
and so on.
3. Problematic project: In this type of project develops the problem-solving capacity of the
students through their experiences. It is based on the cognitive domain.
4. Drill project: It is for the mastery of the skill and knowledge of the students. It increases
the work efficacy and capacity of the students.
Steps of a Project Method
1. Creating Situation: In the first step teacher creates the proper situation to the students in
the class. He puts up the knowledge about the project method procedure, steps, and uses to
the students. A project should arise out of a need felt by students and it should never be
forced on them. It should be purposeful and significant.
2. Selection of the problem: The teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide
them. Students are having freedom to choose the topic or problem based on their interest and
ability. Before choosing the topic, the principles should be taken in to an account. Such as
school tasks are to be as real and as purposeful and they are of such a nature that the student
is genuinely eager to carry them out in order to achieve a desirable and clearly realized aim.
Teacher should only tempt the students for a particular project by providing a situation but
the proposal for the project should finally come from students.
3. Planning: The teacher discusses with the students about the problem in various angles and
points. After the free expression of the students’ opinion about the problem, the teacher
writes down the whole programme of action stepwise on the blackboard. In the process of
planning teacher has to act only as a guide and should give suggestions at times but actual
planning be left to the students.
4. Execution: The students are stating their work in this step. They are collecting the relevant
information and materials at first. The teacher should give the time and right to the students
according to their own speed, interest and ability. During this step the teacher should
carefully supervise the pupils in manipulative skills to prevent waste of materials and to
guard accidents. Teacher should constantly check-up the relation between the chalked out
plans and the developing project.
5. Evaluation: Evaluation of the project should be done both by the pupils and the teachers.
Here the students evaluating their task. They determine whether the objects are achieved or
not. After that they criticize and express their feeling about the task freely. The evaluation of
the project has to be done in the light of plans, difficulties in the execution and achieved
results.
6. Reporting and Recording: It is the last step of the project method in which each and
every step of the work are reported. The reported things are recorded in a certain order in a
book form. It should include the proposal, plan and its discussion, duties allotted to different
students and how far they were carried out by them. It should also include the details of
places visited and surveyed guidance for future and all other possible details. The book
formatted report is submitted to the teacher at the end.
Essentials of A Good Project
  The project should stress present & future values &experiences that supplement &
extend rather than duplicate learning acquired outside the school.
 The project must have a bearing on a great number of subjects & the knowledge
acquired through it may be applied in a variety of ways.
 The project should be timely.
 The project should be challenging.
 The project should be feasible.
Organizing A Project
• The teacher must exercise guidance in the selection of a project.
• Whole-hearted acceptance of the project, almost every student must be secured if the
teacher wants to ensure its success.
• Good planning should be done by the students beforehand.
• The project is an activity to accomplish certain purposes.
• Sufficient preparations must be made to avoids interruptions & delays later.
• During the execution of the project, the teacher should carefully supervise the
students in manipulative skills to prevent a waste of materials & to guards against
accidents.
• The relation between chalked-out plans & the developing project should be
constantly checked.
• The evaluation of a project should be done by both – the students & the teacher.
The Role of Teacher in The Project method
• The teacher has to skilfully guide in the selection.
• The student has to be given help when required.
• The teacher should be good prompter.
• The relations of the teacher & students should be much closer & informal than in
ordinary classroom teaching.
• The teacher is like a friend with rich & mature experience.
• The teacher acts as a director.
• The teacher must be a keen observer.
• The teacher should be a stroke house of information& knowledge.
Merits Of Project Method:
a. As students gets proper freedom to execute the project in accordance with their interest
and abilities, because of which they get their psychological needs satisfied to considerable
extent.
b. This method is not only subject centred, but due importance is being provided to the
students also.
c. Through this method, students are provided with various opportunities by which they can
satisfy their interests and desires.
d. Habit of critical thinking gets developed among the students through this method.
e. With this method, students get the ample chances in which they can develop coordination
among their body and mind.
f. Through this method, teacher can lead a well-balanced development of the students.
g. Through this method, science teaching can be done with considerable success, as science is
a practical subject and this method is also scientific and practical in nature.
h. This method helps in promoting social interaction and co-operation among the students, as
they have to work in a group and have to interact with various persons for gathering
information.
i. As students gain knowledge directly through their own efforts, thus, they acquire
permanent kind of information, which is retained by them since a long period of time.
j. Mostly the projects are undertaken in classroom as classroom assignments, because of
which load of home work from the students get reduced to considerable extent.
k. It helps to widen the mental horizon of pupils.
l. It sets up a challenge to solve a problem and this stimulates constructive and creative
thinking.
Demerits of Project Method
a. This method takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project.
b. It is not possible to design different projects for different topics and it is also not possible
to cover all the topics or content in a single project.
c. For proper execution of a project, large number of financial resources are required.
d. Such method can only be prove successful if the teacher is highly knowledgeable, alert
and exceptionally gifted.
e. Systematic and adequate learning is not provided by this method, as it is a method of
incidental learning. Through this method, students learn only what is required by them in
relation to the completion of the projects.
f. Generally, it is found that teachers do not possess much information regarding the manner
in which this method should be used as a result of which they hesitate from using this
method, as a result of which, its utility remains more or less limited to negligible extent.
g. Sometimes the projects may be too ambitious and beyond student’s capacity to
accomplish.
Advantages of Project Method
 Active Learning Experience: The project method emphasizes the concept of
learning by doing. enhancing their skillset, first-hand experiences, and thinking
capacity.
 Inculcating a Sense of Responsibility: In the project method of teaching, the
teacher is a guide and the activities carried out in the class are carried out by the
students themselves. This helps improve self-reliance and self-responsibility among
students.
 Improves Collaboration Among Students: Project-based learning helps students
work together, fostering professional and personal bonds that make the learning
experience enjoyable and enlightening. It encourages cooperation, developing social
skills.
 Improves Communication Skills: It helps students improve their communicative
skills drastically because students are given the opportunity to express themselves
freely among their peers as well as their teachers, hence helping them communicate
more effectively.
 Improves Critical Thinking Skills: Critical thinking skills are 21st Century
Skills that students of all ages need to have in today’s time. It is something that needs
to be cultivated with respect to the future of the students and needs to be dealt with utmost
diligence
Disadvantages of Project Method of Teaching
 Time Consuming: Teaching students using the project method can be
timeconsuming as there are a lot of things that need to be taken into consideration
when teaching using this method such as the student's ability to comprehend the
subject, the speed with which they do so, the factual accuracy of the project and so
on. There are a lot of factors that need to be observed and duly corrected by the
teacher. This is the perfect segue into the next point: the lack of expert teachers.
 The Lack of Experienced Teachers: The project method of teaching can only be
conducted by experienced teachers who have several years of experience, which a
lot of teachers may not have. This leads to a shortage of teachers and hence
incapability to execute this form of teaching effectively.
  Not Suitable for All Subjects: The project method of teaching is most suitable for
subjects that require practical knowledge, and so subjects such as arts, literature, and
so on may not benefit a lot from this form of teaching

FIELD TRIP
Field trip is refers to the visit a place. The field trips may be educational or organization.
Which are students or individual visit the natural setting and beautiful place. Where the
visitors can gain knowledge observing places, objects, phenomenon. It is a one type of
learning method. So, it is the realistic method of teaching and learning. A field trip is a visit
to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to achieve certain objectives,
which cannot be achieved as well by using other means. For example if the lesson is
on “making cheese”, and if there is no hand on experience
it is very difficult to achieve the objectives. In such a lesson field trip strategy is required.
Definition of field trip
 An educational trip is defined as an educational procedure by which the students
obtain first-hand information by observing places, objects, phenomena & processes
in their natural setting to future learning.
 An educational field trip can be an integral part of the instructional program. Good
field trips provide participants with first-hand experience related to the topic or
concept being discussed in the program. They provide unique opportunities for
learning that are not available within the four walls of a classroom.
 Any teaching and learning excursion outside of the classroom.
Features of field trip
1. Facilitate the learning of abstract concepts:
Taking students on a field trip makes learning more effective as they will be able to gain vast
ideas on the topic.
2. Motivate students through increased interest and curiosity:
Field trips can add variety to the regular classroom instructional program and they tend to be
special and enjoyable learning experiences. As a result, students will develop positive
attitudes in study toward related classroom activities.
3. Increases student-student and student-teacher social interaction:
Field trips provide an opportunity to involve students, parents, and the teachers in the
instructional program. Students can select the place to be visited, developing questions to ask,
writing reports or thank you letters after the trip, or evaluating the experiences. Since parents
must give their permission, a letter sent home with the permission for explaining purpose of
the trip is a good way to arouse their curiosity and encourage them to ask the student or
teacher about the trip. The parent guides their child in order to make sure that they do not
come to any harm. This role allows the parent and teacher to establish a much closer
relationship. The interaction between students within themselves will also be increased when
they work in groups. Moreover, the interaction between the students and teacher will enhance
as the students will have to discuss to the teachers when they have doubts.
4. Develops social awareness:
Field trips make students aware of learning activities in everyday life. For instance, visits to
supermarkets or shopping malls are typical field experiences, which teachers may fail to
notice. A well-organized trip to a "normal" place is an excellent method of teaching students
to observe, ask questions, and learn in the large classroom
TYPES OF FIELD TRIP STRATEGY
1. Instructional trips
An instructional trip is a visit by a class or group of classes to a location outside the regular
classroom, which is designed to allow the students to achieve specific course objectives,
which cannot be achieved as efficiently by other means. An example of an instructional
fieldtrip is a visit to botanical garden to study about different kind of flower.
2. School contests or festivals
A school contest is an extra campus activity, which provides an opportunity for students to
demonstrate knowledge and skills developed through subject area instruction. Contests,
competitions, festivals, or evaluations may involve teams of students from more than one
class or subject. An example of a school contest, festival, or evaluation is the school level
essay competition.
3. Motivational trips
A motivational trip is an extra-campus activity, which is not a part of a scheduled class. It
provides a motivational incentive for the school, club, group, or class and is related to
improving the school climate. The procedures in this guide are for instructional field trips.
Purposes of field trip
1. It enhances the curriculum: Field trips are rich in educational possibilities as students
learn from actual hands-on experiences, rather than by simply reading or hearing
about something. Involvement in a real-world experience makes learning more
meaningful and memorable comparing to regular classroom instructional programs.
 2. Give students experiential learning experience: Involvement in a real-world
experience makes learning more meaningful and memorable. As a result, the students
will have more concept of the topic as they have learnt through their hand-on
experiences.
3. Concrete skills such as note taking: Students have to develop questions to be asked,
write reports or thank you letters after the trip, or evaluate their experiences. By doing
such activities, students will develop various skills such as note taking skills, speaking
skills, writing skills will enhance.
4. Field trips can add variety to the regular instructional program; they tend to be special
and enjoyable learning experiences, ones which develop positive attitudes in students
toward related classroom activities. Field trips are rich in educational possibilities
because students learn from actual first-hand experiences, rather than by simply
reading or hearing about something.
5. Field trips help the students appreciate the relevance and importance of what they
learn in the classroom. For e.g. determining blood type is a skill, which can be learned
in a school laboratory setting, but students may not learn the importance of this skill
until they observe what goes on in a real hospital where life and death of real patients
may depend on this skill
Guidelines for using field trip as a teaching method
 The field trip must be planned to meet specific educational objectives rather than
merely a picnic activity.
 Plan the field trip with a specific checklist such as prior permissions, arrangement of
transpiration, booking boarding facility, parental notification &safety & emergency
arrangement.
 Plan a schedule & route plan for the field trip. Further, identify a main leader of the
group & sub leader of the small groups
 Assign different responsibilities to different individuals & make every individual
understand the overall schedule & route plan of the field trip.
 Have a list of all the candidates, contact numbers of the people to be contacted in case
of an emergency or special needs.
 During a field, individuals must be provided with opportunities to achieve educational
objectives of the field trip.
 Post the field trip, a review & presentation along with a report must be made to the
institutional head& other target group of the institution.
Step involved in conducting field trip.
1. Trip Selection.
o Identify objectives and plan of evaluation for the field trip.
o Select site to be visited and arrange date and time.
o Conduct pre-visit to familiarize yourself with the major features of the field and
obtain address, directions, contact person and mobile numbers.
2. Logistics Planning
o Apply for administrative approval and file requisition for transportation.
o Make arrangement for meals and develop schedule for the day.
o Arrange special equipment’s like cameras and collect money for admission fees if the
site demands.
o Inform parents about the trips.
o Create a list of student names and home phone number for emergency.
3. Field Trip Preparation/Pre-trip discussion
o Discuss the purpose of the field trip.
o Show photographs or posters of the site.
o Set a standard conduct and discuss money usage, lunch plans, dress code and other
necessary things.
o Discuss how to ask good questions and make a list of open-ended observation
questions together information.
o Overview the field trip schedule.
4. The Field Trip
o Let students to sketch if it is necessary.
o Ask prepared questions and note the answers.
o Do things that you have planned.
5. Post-field Trip
o Let student to share their observations and reactions to field trip experiences.
o Create classroom bulletin board displaying materials collected while on field trip.
o Let class to compose thank-you letter to those who helped during the field trip.
Include special information learned.
6. Evaluating Field trip
o What was the unique educational value in this trip?
 o Did students meet the objectives?
o Was there adequate time?
o Was there adequate staff and adult supervision?
o What might be done differently to be better?
o What points to be emphasized next time?
Planning a field trip
Good planning must precede field trips. Careful attention should be given to trip selection,
pre visit preparation, the trip itself, appropriate follow up, and evaluation. When considering
a field trip, teachers are advised to first consult with their administrator regarding existing
school policies and follow those recommended procedures in planning a field trip.
1. Trip Selection
o Identify the rationale, objectives and plan of evaluation for the field trip.
o Select the site to be visited. Contact the educational coordinator for the site and
arrange the date and time. Obtain the pre-trip information package if one is available.
Record addresses, directions, contact persons, phone numbers, email addresses, etc.
o Conduct a pre-visit to familiarize yourself with the major features of the field trip.
Purchase postcards and posters. Take photographs to share with students prior to the
visit. Explore the exhibition(s) you plan to visit to get ideas for pre field trip activities.
2. Logistics Planning
a. Apply for administrative approval from the head of the school.
b. File requisition for bus transportation if the school has any or seek administrative support
for arranging transportation if the school does not have the facility
c. Make arrangements for meal or sack (pack) lunch if needed
d. Develop schedule for the day
e. Arrange for special equipment -supplies, film, video camera, digital camera if needed
f. Collect money for admission fees if the visit site demands
g. Inform the parents (in case of day school) about the following things:
o Date and location of field trip and transportation arrangements
o Educational purpose of field trip
o Provision for special needs students
o Cost
o Clothing for the trip
o Lunch arrangements
 o Money needed
o Trip schedule
o Whether a child will need prescribed medication administered
h. Provide alternative arrangements for pupils who will not be going on the trip.
i. Submit a list of students who will be attending the field trip to other teachers if their
schedules will be affected.
j. Create a list of all student names and home phone numbers for use in an emergency.
3. Preparing Students before the Trip / Field Trip Preparation/Pre-trip discussion
 Discuss the purpose of the field trip and how it relates to the current unit of study. b.
Introduce vocabulary words that will be used by field people during the tour.
 Show photographs or posters of the field trip site or related to exhibits that will be
viewed.
 Assign student’s "specialists" roles in one aspect of the topic that they will be
studying during the field trip. Students could be grouped in different subject areas
related to the field trip topic to research (e.g., history, art, religion, science,
environment, etc).
 As a class brainstorm a set of standards of conduct for the trip and discuss suggested
spending money, lunch plans, appropriate clothing to wear for the trip including gear
for rainy weather.
 Discuss with students how to ask good questions and brainstorm a list of open-ended
observation questions to gather information during the visit. Record questions on
chart paper or in student field trip journals.
 Overview the field trip schedule.
4. Final Planning / the field trip
o Check all permission slips the day before the field trip.
o Activities that will occur during the Field Trip
o Plan activities that allow students to work alone, in pairs or small groups. Activities
might include:
o Sketch pages with partial drawings of objects found in the exhibits for students to
complete the drawings based on their observations
o Peepholes in construction paper - cut different sized round holes in construction
paper and have students view a part of the exhibition through the peepholes. Ask them
 to describe what they see, what they notice now that they missed before, and how
their perspective changes with each new view
o Field notebooks for recording answers to prepared questions based on clues
o Hand drawn postcards to write near the end of the tour that will summarize the field
trip visit. Provide time for students to observe, ask questions, and record key words,
ideas and phrases as journal entries in their Field book after viewing each exhibit. Ask
follow-up questions as students make observations and listen to presentations.
o How are these two objects different from one another?
o What clues does this artifact provide about the topic?
o In what ways do these two objects relate to one another?
o If you could change one thing in this exhibit, what would it be?
o Pretend you are an archaeologist in the future who is observing this object. What
would you be able to conclude about the culture of the past?
o Describe the setting in which you might have found this object.
o Which object will be of greatest value in a hundred years? Why?
o Which object took the most time and effort to produce?
o Pretend you are a character in this exhibit. Tell us as much as you can about your life.
o What does this object tell us about the person's attitude toward...?
Schedule a particular segment of the field trip for a scavenger hunt where students look for
particular objects and record them in their Field book or on an observation sheet. Provide
time for students to work in their Field Book writing questions, describing favourite displays
or making sketches of artifacts, structures, scenery, etc. If they cannot complete theirsketches,
encourage them to label them for future completion as to color, detail, etc.
5. Post-Field Trip Activities

Just as quality pre-planning is essential to the success of a field trip, planning for appropriate
follow-up activities will facilitate student learning and multiply the value of hands-on
experiences outside the classroom. The following activities provide a general guide when
planning for post-field trip classroom experiences.
o Provide time for students to share general observations and reactions to field trip
experiences
o Share specific assignments students completed while on the field trip.
 o Create a classroom bulletin board displaying materials developed or collected while
on the field trip.
o Develop a classroom museum that replicates and extends displays students observed
on the field trip. For example, if the field trip involved an art museum, develop a
classroom art museum containing student artwork.
o Link field trip activities to multiple curricular areas. For example, students can
develop vocabulary lists based on field trip observations; record field trip
observations in a classroom journal; complete math problems related to actual field
trip budget planning etc.
o Share and evaluate student assignments/activities from the Field Book.
o Have the class compose and send thank-you letters to the field trip site host, school
administrators and other persons that supported the field trip. Include favourite objects
or special information learned during the field trip.
o Create a short news report about what happened on the field trip. Publicize the trip via
an article in your local newspaper, school bulletin board, trip presentation for parent's
night, or school web page.
6. Evaluating the Trip
o Complete a "Teacher Journal" regarding the field trip. This will provide a good
reference for future field trips.
o What was of unique educational value in this field trip?
o Did the students meet the objectives/expectations?
o Was there adequate time?
o Was there adequate staff and adult supervision?
o What might be done differently to make this an even better experience in the future?
o What special points should be emphasized next time?
o What special problems should be addressed in the future?
o What would improve a visit to this site in the future?
Organization of field trip.
A planning of field trip is requiring careful planning, implementation and evaluation of
the work done.
o In planning stage, we are plan for trip and choose the place.
 o In implementation stage we are confirm a date and time of visit. Transportation
is arranged and students are briefed about the visit in advance. And then go to
trip and enjoy.
o Evaluation stage the students will write observation report and verify by the
teacher.

Advantages of field trip

1. Real-world experience.
It allows students to have a real-world experience. For example, a textbook lesson on
the domestic animals can be enhanced by a trip to a local farm where the students can
clearly see the domestic animals.
2. Increase in quality of education.
For example, a biology field trip could take kids on a hunt for bugs or certain types of
flowers. In this case students can learn more. Hence it improves the quality of education.
3. Improvement of the social relations.
It is a way to bring the students closer together. Many field trips combine educational
content with team-building activities, such as working together to clean a stream that
has been polluted. In fact, it is often a good idea to go on a field trip to help create a
bond between the students.
Disadvantages of field trip
1. Time considerations.
Difficultly in preparation (getting approval from various head of administration) and
fitting the trip as per the school timetable which takes more time.
2. Lack of support from school administrations for field trips.
It means school can’t afford the materials and sometime can’t provide financial also
where student have to search their own ways.
3. Poor student behaviour and attitudes.
Means loss over students like sometime some students they don’t listen to the teacher
showing their ego attitudes and doing the things on their own ways which cause trip to be
unsuccessful where it affects the other students and the relation between teacher and
students because of the bad attitude.
 4. Shortage of resources and choice of venue.
Means sometimes school can’t provide the materials and teacher also can’t have the
correct materials for the trip which causes shortage of resources. And some time student
can’t have the choice to pick their own place and they have to agree with the teacher
choice which shows student doesn’t have the choice to select the venue.
5. Medical risk.
For example, like while travelling via vehicle some children gets motion sickness.

EXHIBITION
Introduction
Many times, in the school, a dependent of the school or a class puts up their work for
showing it to people outside the school & such a show is called exhibition.
The pieces of work done by students for an exhibition are called exhibit.
Definition
"It is a planned display of models, charts, specimens, posters etc., to present the public view
for instruction and to put in a competition, advertising or entertainment". Gilbert
Types
1. Educational Exhibition.
2. Consumer Exhibition.
3. Trade Exhibition.
1. Educational exhibition.
Educational exhibitions are conducted in educational institutions to educate the learners.
Generally, these are organized by the students.
2.Consumer exhibition
These are horizontal markets. They usually involve a large range of products from a number
of different industries on display to the general public.
3.Trade exhibition.
Are generally designed to meet the needs of one particular type of business or product or
country. Only people involved in the field are invited to attend.
Basic characteristics of exhibition
o The exhibition should have a central theme with a few subthemes to focus attention
on a particular concept.
 o The exhibits should be clean & properly labelled.
o The concepts of contrast in colour & size should be used for laying out the
exhibitions.
o The exhibits should be placed so the most visitors can see them.
o The place & exhibits should be well lighted.
o Both motion & sound should be utilized to capture the attention & interest of visitors
o The exhibition should have some exhibits with operative mechanisms such as
switches &handles to be operated by visitors.
o The exhibition should include a lot of demonstrations as they involve the students
&the visitors deeply.
o The exhibition should be able to relate various subject areas to provide integrated
learning.
Purpose
o To inculcate in the minds of the students the educational needs to have an enquiry
approach rather than a mere store house of information.
o To achieve specialized knowledge among students and aim to consider learning as an
adventure through exhibition.
o To develop student's abilities in imagination and train them to focus on facts and
figures in a manner that will attract the attention of viewers.
o To reveal the ideas clearly and effectively.
o To stimulate team spirit among students.
o To promote understanding.
o To summarize the activities that have been completed and emphasizing their meaning.
o To influence people to adopt better practices by arousing interest, stimulating thought
and getting action.
o To acquaint the public with better standards by teaching facts.
o To promote participation in or to raise money for some public cause or activity.
o To give recognition to people or institutions by enabling them to display their
products.
o To create market for certain commodities
Steps Involved in Organizing An Exhibition
Step-1 Assessment
 o Assess the purpose of exhibition.
o Assess the level of knowledge of the persons for whom exhibition is displayed.
o Plan the exhibition according to the curricular requirement.
Step -2 Planning
o A successful exhibit starts with a plan, based on the purpose for which the exhibit
is to be used.
o The plan should be visualized and this is called a "lay out". This is a rough outline
with details.
o The layout provides a way of evaluating the finished project as to clarity of the
message, attractiveness, completeness etc.,
o Although exhibits do not have to be works of arts, but they should be pleasing,
attractive, colourful and capable of communication the intended message.
o A variety of specialized devices may be employed for the arrangements of
exhibits which can be used for the classroom teaching as well as for commercial
purpose.
o Decide upon the type of exhibits, considering the needs of audience and specific
purpose.
o Consult local leaders and get their co -operation.
o Distribute relevant literature.
o The workshop must have the power to attract.
Step - 3 Requsites
o The exhibition should have a central theme with a few sub theme to focus
attention to a particular topic.
o It should be clearly labelled.
o The exhibits should be placed that most visitors can see them.
o Since exhibition is meant to be mainly seen, the place and the exhibits should be
well lighted. (Sound system could also be arranged).
o The exhibition must have some exhibits with operative mechanisms such as
switches or levers to be operated by the visitors to observe some happenings.
o The exhibition must include a lot of demonstration as this will involve both
students & the visitors alike.
 o The exhibition should be able to relate various subjects’ areas to provide
integrated learning.
Step - 4 Preparations
o Exhibits must be well prepared such that your message is understood by the
visitors, in a short time taken by them to walk by the exhibits.
o Make it simple.
o Limit one idea per booth or section.
o Make the workshop timely.
o Make it durable if possible.
o Make the workshop attractive.
o Label legibly and briefly.
o The exhibit should be well lighted.
o Give adequate publicity, both in advance and after the exhibition is over.
o The colours may be carefully planned.
o Use sounds and variety in the nature of exhibits.
Step - 5 Selection of Place
o The exhibition should be within the reach of the viewers.
o The area of exhibition room should be sufficient to display the exhibits.
o There should be sufficient place for the viewers of the exhibition to move about.
Step - 6 Display
o Keep the exhibition (exhibits) at a height not less than 2 feet and not more than 6
feet from the floor.
o Action exhibits attract attention.
Action In Exhibits
Place the exhibits in such a place that it is certain to be seen. An exhibit is seen, not read.
Therefore, the message must be presented in a way as to be understood in a glance.
Motion attracts attention, so motion pictures or motion figures can be utilized.
Step - 7 Evaluation
o Evaluate effectiveness of exhibition by analysing attendance enquires and
requests.
o Exhibits must be free from prejudices.
Advantages of Exhibition
 o Exhibitions inspire the students to learn by doing things themselves & get a sense of
involvement.
o They give students a sense of accomplishment &achievement.
o They develop social skills of communication, cooperation & coordination.
o They foster better school community relations &make community members conscious
about the school.
o They couple information with pleasure.
o They foster creativity in students.
Disadvantages of exhibition
o It requires through preparation.
o It is a time-consuming process.
o It requires a large amount of funds or budget.
o It cannot lend itself to all topics and cannot be frequently or widely used.
o The whole process is expensive.
o It needs electricity.
o It may create some negative impression among audience.
o Many exhibits are arranged as a matter of routine without specific teaching aim.

PROGRAMMED INTRUCTIONS
Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matter to students through a
graded sequence of controlled steps with corresponding activities. Students work through the
programmed material at their own speed independently and assess their own comprehension
after each step through exam questions or filling in a diagram. This method consists of a
network of tests and statements which direct the student accordingly depending on their
pattern of errors.

Programmed instruction refers to two main methods of learning. The first was developed by
Norman Crowder, where the instructor includes multiple choice test questions within the text
and provides feedback for each of the non-correct alternative options when a student chooses
them. The second was developed by B.F. Skinner and includes a schedule of reinforcement
for activities placed in a specific, continuous order.
Definition of Programmed instructions
The instructions provided by a teaching machine or programmed textbook are referred to as
programmed instructions.
According to Susan Markle (1969), ‘programmed instruction is a method of designing
reproducible sequence of instructional event to produce a measurable consistent effect on a
behaviour of each & every acceptable student.
Purpose
 To manage human learning under controlled conditions.
 To promote learning at the pace of the learner.
 To present the material in small pieces.
 To provide quicker response

Characteristics of Programmed Instructions

 The subject matter is broken down into small steps called frames & arranged
sequentially.
 Frequent response of the student is required.
 There is an immediate confirmation of the right answer or correction of wrong
answers given by the learners, i.e. ‘self - correcting features.’
 The content & sequence of the frames are subjected to actual try out by students & are
revised on the basis of data gathered by the programmer, i.e. ‘diagnostic feature.
 Each student progresses at his own pace without any threat of being exposed to any
humiliation in a heterogeneous class.
 The assumption about the learner is clearly stated in the programmed learning
materials.
 The objectives underlying programming instructions are defined explicitly & in
operational terms so that the terminal behaviour is made observable & measurable.
 The interaction between the learner & the programme is emphasized in programmed
learning.
 In a programmed material, continuous evaluation is possible by recording the
student’s response.

Types of Programming
I. Linear Programming
 In a linear programme, the learner’s responses are controlled externally by the
programmer sitting at a distant place.
  A linear programme is called a straight-line programme as the learner starts from his
initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a straight line.
 The student proceeds from one frame to the next until he completes the programme.
Characteristics of linear programming
The basic characteristics of linear programming are as follows:
 Linear programmes are exposed to a small amount of information & proceed
from one frame or one item of information to the next in an orderly fashion.
 They respond overtly so their correct responses can be rewarded & incorrect
responses can be corrected.
 They are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct
(feedback).
 They proceed at their own pace (self-pacing).
Scope Of Lp
Elementary education: Generally, there are single teacher in certain schools and are
required to teach all the subjects. LP will help teachers in such situations.
Secondary education: In secondary education diversity if interest and curriculum necessitate
this method.
Correspondence education:
 For high school students: Self instruction could be made possible if the
correspondence lessons are programmed.
 For school teachers: When a new course is being introduced, programmed
instruction will equip them with content and new mehtods of teaching.
University education
 Standards of higher education can be maintained.
 Can be applied for health-oriented courses (Health Care Professional Education)
Principles of Lp
Principle of Small Step
A learner can proceed from knowing very little about a subject to mastery over the subject by
going through a programme.
Principle of Conformation
In this kind of reinforcement to work on the programme or to learn, a learner need not wait
for a long time to proceed to the next level.
Principle of Self Pacing
The learner can work each step as slowly or as quickly as he chooses.
Student Testing & Evaluation
LP provides a detailed record of the student and is the basis for revising the programme.
Types of Lp
construct response
 This is a Skinnerian type of learning process.
 The learner has to construct responses while going through such formats of
programme text.
Multiple choice questions
 Sydney L. Pressy selected a response on each frame and is presented in the
discrimination frame sequence type of programme.
Conventional chaining
 John Barlow designed this type.
 Here each frame is connected to the second frame which becomes a part of the
stimulus of the third and so on down the line.
Skip Linear
 Uses skipping device for solving problems of review and over review where a bright
student may skip the simple programme.
Criterion frames
 This is used to direct the learner along the linear path according to their responses at
those critical situations.
 The creation frames decide whether the student should go through a particular
sequence or not.
Ruleg System
 The contents are organized in terms of rules first and then the examples.
 The rule is given a complete form and the examples are in an incomplete form.
 A learner has to construct responses to complete the example.
Egrule System
 This is opposite to the ruleg system.
 The contents are organized in terms of examples and then the rules.
 The examples are given in complete form and the rules in incomplete form.
II. Branching or intrinsic style programming
 Norman Crowder, a contemporary of skinner, was working independently for the
armed services on programmed instructions.
 He felt a programme was a form of communication between a programmer & a user.
  Like any communication, the programme must be directed to the individual.
 In an intrinsic or branching programme, each frame presents more text than the
average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct question, usually
in a multiple- option format.
Principles of the branching programme
 Principle of exposition: Here the whole concept is presented to the student so that he
can learn the complete information better which is provided in the home page. It
serves two purposes: teaching & diagnosis.
 Principle of diagnosis: Here the weakness of the learner is identified after exposition
& it is assessed whether the learner could learn what the causes are, then it can be
modified.
 Principles of remediation: If a learner chooses the wrong alternative, the learner has
to move to a wrong page where a remedial instruction is provided & the student is
directed to return to the home page & he/she is asked to choose the right answer.
Structure of branching programme
The programme text is called scrambled text. This consists of two types of pages :
1. Home page.
2. Wrong page.
Home Page
This page consists of content or concept and followed by multiple choice questions which
involve four aspects:
1. Teaching (The learner goes through the instructions to comprehend the concept or
information).
2. Response (At the end of instruction, multiple choice is given to the learner to choose
the correct response, which the learner has to discriminate. The response is intrinsic).
3. Diagnosis (If the learner chooses the wrong response, he has to move to the wrong
page. If he chooses the right response, he moves to the next home page, where the next
unit is presented.)
4. Reinforcement The response is reinforced by confirming it at the begening of the
home page, hence the learner is encouraged through verbal approval or praise.
Wrong Page
Wrong page or remedial frame involves:
1. Repeating student response.
2. Negative confirmation.
 3. Reason as to why he is wrong.
4. Further explanation in a single language.
5. Direction as to where the learner should go next.
Technique Of Branching Programme
There are two techniques:
1. Backward Branching.
2. Forward Branching.
Backward Branching
If the learner makes an error, he has to take to the remedial frame where, He is given
some more help in understanding the concept and solving the problem. He is then
directed to the original frame number one. So, the learner goes through the same frame
twice, once before the remedial material is referred by him.
Forward Branching
When the learner gives a correct or wrong response, he goes to the next or new page. If he
makes a wrong choice, he is directed to the remedial frame where his mistakes are fully
explained. This is followed by another parallel question from which he goes to the next
frame in the main stream.
Development of a Programmed Instruction
 I Phase: Preparatory phase
 II Phase: Writing phase
 III Phase: Validation phase
Preparatory Phase
1. Involves viewing the programme on any topic.
2. Deciding to prepare a programme.
3. Selecting a topic.
4. Preparing a content outline.
5. Specification of objectives in behavioural forms.
6. Specifications (Assumptions about learner).
7. Entering behaviour (Pre requisite skill).
8. Preparation of pre-test.
9. Terminal behaviour. Expected performance of the learner at the end of a course.
10. Preparation of post-test i.e. preferably criterion test.
Writing Phase
Involves the following activities:
1. Presentation of Materials in Frames.
2. Requires an Active Student Participation.
3. Prove Answers for Confirmation or Correction of Student Response.
4. Use Prompts to Guide Student Response.
5. Provide Careful Sequencing of Frames.
Presenting The Materials in Frames
 A frame is a small segment of information that calls for particular student response.
 The task of a programmer is to provide the stimulus necessary to evoke student
response.
 The acquisition of these responses is a step towards terminal behaviour.
 Be sure that each frame presents a relatively small segment of material.
 The programmer should present only enough material to elicit a single response
Active Student Response
 In every frame the response of the student is elicited.
 The responses in programmed material should be overt or covert.
 Student who makes overt responses should write down their answers on sheets of
paper.
 Student who makes covert responses should mentally compose their own
responses to each blank in the frame before turning the page to the correct
Confirmation / Correction
 Providing the correct response with which students can compare their own
responses is a standard characteristic of programmed instruction.
 Students come to know their responses are correct or incorrect.
Using Prompts
 Prompts are provided in the programme frame to guide the student to the correct
response.
 Prompts are supplementary stimuli; they are added to a frame to make the frame
easier but are not sufficient in themselves to produce the responses.
Sequencing of the Frame
Sequencing depends on:
1. The description and analysis of the behaviours the programme intends to teach.
2. The conditions necessary for the learning required by the various tasks.
 All the basic learning conditions - discrimination, generalization, contiguity,
practice and reinforcement can be embodied in the frame sequence.
  Frame sequence can also provide for review and testing whenever these are
necessary.
Validation Phase
Involves:
1. Try out and revision.
2. Individual try out.
3. Small group try out.
4. Master validation.
5. Editing, reviewing, revising and modifying the programme for final preparation based
on fruits of try out.
Advantages
 Programmed Instructions are more successful in critical sagacity (discernment) of
the logic or various subjects and inspiring students' creative thinking and
judgement.
 Good teachers are freed from the humdrum of routine classroom activity and they
are in a position to devote their time to more creative activities.
 The use of programmed instruction has potentials to improve the quality of
education in general.
 It helps a teacher to diagnose the problems of the individual learner.
 The use of programmed learning has brought a revolution in the social setting of
the classroom.
 Many emotional and social problems have been eliminated and problem of
discipline have been solved automatically.
 Programmed instruction is a great thrust in the direction of individualized
instruction.
 A well-organized programmed instructional device is tailored to cater to the needs
of individual students of the class.
 By presenting the learning material in a small segment of information (frames), it
makes learning an interesting game in which the learner is challenged by his own
capabilities.
Disadvantages
• Programmed instruction does not eliminate competition of grades as often claimed.
 Mere manipulation of the machine is not rewarding. Once novelty wears off, or if too
many errors appear, the students’ loose interest and motivation.
 • Later reinforcements often do not accelerate learning.
• Programmed instruction restricts the learner's freedom of choice resulting in
cramping of his imagination and initiative.
• Operant conditioning is found successful only with some students in some cases and
not in all.
• PI ignore or make inadequate provisions for variables like cognitive, personality and
motivational variables.
COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
The word computer is derived from the word compute, which means to calculate
justifying its usefulness. A computer is an electronic machine, which works under the
control of a stored program, automatically accepting processing of data to producing
designed results. Computer-assisted learning (CAL) is also known as computer-assisted
instruction (CAI).
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) • CAI consists of individual learning booths, each
with a console. It has a television screen for displaying information. A complete package
of information is stored in the system and is presented sequentially. The learner may
question the computer and feed the answer into it. It helps determine subsequent
activities in the learning situations.
Definition
Computer-assisted instruction or learning refers to the introduction or remediation
presented on a computer. Many educational computer programmes are available online
from computer stores & textbook companies. They enhance the teacher’s instruction in
several ways.
Computer-assisted learning or computer-assisted instructions facilities access to
information with infinite patience, accuracy &provide an opportunity to all learners. It
provides complete individualizing instruction.
Types Of Computer-Assisted Learning
I.Logo:
 This system was developed by Feurzing & Papart.
 Logo is a simple programming language, which can be taught to children.
 The programme provides instructions that can be used to produce pictures on an
oscilloscope or make a little mechanical robot.
 The children who learn logo make up their own programmes to draw flowers or faces
or generate designs on the screen.
II.Stimulation:
This language enables students to mount an experiment in a symbolic form.
III.Controlled learning:
 Controlled learning involves the use of interesting adaptive strategies.
 It includes both drill & practice.
 Drill & practice programmes are supplementary to the regular curriculum followed by
the classroom teacher.
Computer-Assisted Writing Instruction
A computer programme for writing helps students with developing ideas, organizing,
outlining & brainstorming. A template provides the framework & reduces the physical effort
spent on writing so that students can pay attention to organization &content.
Computer programmes for writing
Word Prediction
Speech: Specific programmes that identify words students use repeatedly; when a student
types the first few letters, the programme lists the frequently used words that start with those
letters. Speeds up the typing process.
Speech To Text
Student speak into a microphone and the programme types the words. Programme must be
trained to the students' word pronunciation and speech style. Student must be taught how to
use the programme. Increase speed from voice to text.
Text To Speech
Students can hear what they have typed to check if it says what they want to say. Good for
editing.
Spellchecker
Students can identify misspelled words. Automatically corrects words if the teacher sets to
the programme that way.
Expert Needed in Computer-Assisted Learning
• Computer engineer
• Lesson writer
• System operator
Role of a Teacher In Computer-Assisted Learning
 The teacher will be liberated from his routine duty.
 The computer-assisted instruction can complete the language data accurately &
rapidly.
Advantages
 Facilitates instruction to a large number of students.
 Reduces the work load of the teachers.
 Can reach large audience
 Promotes multiple dimensional learning.
 Promotes interactive learning.
 Provides immediate feedback.
 Increases mastery of fundamental concepts.
 Improves motivation through reward and interaction.
 Builds confidence among students.
 Promotes critical analysis and problem solving among students.
Disadvantages Of Computer- Assisted learning
 Inadequate training of teachers & inadequacy of instructional material.
 The computer fails to appreciate the students’ emotions. The warm emotional climate
created by the teacher in classroom interaction with the students is lacking in CAL.
 CAL fails to develop essential features of language competency.
 CAL is a mechanical approach to education.
 The peripheral equipment puts constraints in the ways a student can interact with the
computer.
Application of computers in Nursing
I. Education
 Knowledge of computers can be applied to prepare slides in MS PowerPoint on the
topics to be taught to students.
 Knowledge of multimedia helps the nursing teachers & students teach effectively.
 Education through internet & CAL has simplified education in nursing schools.
 A computer aids in learning & instructions:
1. By providing information & instructions.
2. By asking questions.
3. By doing difficult calculations.
4. By being tireless & repetitive.
5. By simulated process.
6. By selecting the right speed for providing information to individual learners.
II. Administration
 Preparing records of nursing students by lecturers & nursing superintendent.
  Preparing & maintaining records of assessment& results.
 Preparing duty rosters that saves time.
 Preparing drafts of a plan annually, monthly & weekly.
III. Hospital
 Computers keep records of patient’s health status during hospital stay & OPD.
 Hospital Information Management System (HIMS)helps to have access to the patient
treatment chart, operation list or anaesthetic record; this is possible with computer
knowledge.
 Computer helps nurses manage routine documents in a fraction of a time, which may
otherwise take up a lot of time manually.
 It increases productivity of nurses.
 Other functions in hospital, i.e. automatic generation of reminder letters,
determination of milestones & so on are performed with the help of appropriate
software.
Features of HIMS
 Data is retrieved quickly & easily.
 Entry of data is easy.
 It has a high degree of security of data.
 Data validation is stringent. Benefits of HIMS
 Improvement in the doctor’s productivity.
 Reduced patient waiting time.
 Eliminating wastage of stationary.
 Prompt medical attention.
 Accuracy & timeliness of data.
 Eliminating any possibility of mixing of blood samples.
Benefits of HIMS
 Authorization check & accuracy of billing.
 Prompt issue of medication for patients.
 Maintaining inventory of medication.
 Safe recording of data & saving the time that has to be spent in the medical record
department.
 Carrying legal value.
 Prescribing diet from the ward through a computer.
 Giving secret code to prevent manipulation for security reasons.
 IV. Research work
 Computer are used to get information on the research works being carried out via the
internet. They help support research findings with another research that has been
carried out.
 Knowledge of computers helps nurses increase their productivity & provide the best
patient centred care.

MICROTEACHING
Introduction
The idea of micro-teaching originated for the first time at Stanford University, USA, when an
experimental project on the identification of teaching skills was in progress under guidance
&supervision of faculty members. The term micro-teaching was coined for this method of
developing teaching skills in 1963. It is being used with great emphasis in all teacher training
programmes for developing teaching skills& competencies in teacher trainees. It requires
good verbal and non-verbal skills. It includes various techniques in order to transfer
knowledge effectively. Not everyone can master it.
Definition of Micro-Teaching
"A system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching
behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled condition". -Allen and Eve (1968).
The art of teaching is a complex process, which is not limited to transferring of knowledge
from one to another.
Micro Teaching Process Method
Underlying Principles of Micro teaching:
Microteaching revolves around certain principles to improve its reach in the all-round
development of the teachers.
1. One skill at one time:
Skills in microteaching are targeted one at a time. Training on particular skills are given until
it is mastered. Once mastered another skill is targeted next. Thus, micro teaching aims for one
skill at a time.
2. Small scale content:
Limiting the content gives more freedom and ease to the trainees. Thus, micro teaching is
based upon the principle of limited content. Teachers are to prepare their lessons within the
given content; therefore, it becomes easier for them to conduct their lessons.
3. Practice makes a man perfect:
Mastering skills require practice. While focusing on one skill at a time, micro teaching
program also gives an opportunity to practice those skills. Lots of practice can boost the self-
confidence and promote in development of teaching skills.
4. Experiments:
Experiments are the key factors in any concept. In micro teaching, many experiments are
conducted in order to test the skills of the teachers.
For example, the supervisors conduct experiments where the length of the lessons, time
duration, the strength of students in the class etc is changed. These skills are tested under
controlled condition.
5. Instantaneous feedbacks:
Micro teaching consists of teacher-pupil and supervisor as students. Once a session ends,
teacher-pupil and supervisors come up with their feedback. This feedback is given instantly
after the lesson plan ends. Thus, it helps in rectifying the drawbacks.
6. Self-evaluation opportunities:
Evaluation plays an important role in any task. In micro-teaching, supervisors conduct
various tests and thus there are several chances to analyse mistakes.
Evaluation gives an opportunity to understand the mistake and overcome it. This program
includes a session where drawbacks are pointed out along with their solution. Thus, overall
improvement becomes an easier target.
7. Continuous efforts:
Acquiring and mastering skills is a slow and ongoing process. Even after mastering a
previous skill, one should continually strive for betterment. Continuous efforts make it easier
to attain overall development.
Basic Concepts
 Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs
real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper knowledge
regarding the art of teaching.
 The Stanford technique involved the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re- teach
and re-observe”
  Effective student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative
method of equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of microteaching
have been implemented.
Microteaching Cycle

 Step- I : Micro Lesson Plan (may take 2 hrs/ a day)

 Step-II : Teach 5 Min.
 Step-III : Feedback Session 5 Min.
 Step-IV : Re-plan 10 Min.
 Step-V : Re-teach Another group 5 Min.
 Step-VI : Re-feedback 5 Min. --------------- Total 30 Min. (Appr.)
It is also known as the micro teaching steps and which includes 6 steps
Step1: Plan
In this first step, teacher-trainee selects a topic or concept and prepares short-lesson plan with
the use of components of the skill under practice. The activities of micro-teaching are
planned in such a way where maximum application of the components of a skill is possible.
Step2: Teach
After preparing lesson plan, teacher-trainee attempts to teach the group of students as per the
planned activities within stipulated time. In case of any different situations arise during
micro-teaching session which is not visualized in the planned activities. Trainee can alter the
activities as per the situational demand. He should have the courage and confidence to handle
the challenging situation of classroom.
Step3: Feedbacks
It refers to providing information about trainee’s performance in the classroom. The
information is comprised of strength and weakness of trainee’s performance during practice
session. Obviously, feedback contributes more in enhancing the performance and behavior
modification of trainee in the desired direction in each and every skill practice.

Step4: Re-plan
At this juncture, teacher-trainee re-plans his lesson incorporating the given feedbacks by the
supervisors. Here, the trainee again prepares a micro-lesson on the same topic or a topic
which suite trainee for practicing particular skill.
Step5:Re-teach
Here, teacher-trainee teaches the micro lesson at another time. Trainee can teach on same
topic to different group of students and another topic to same group of students’ vice-versa. It
is done to avoid the boredom of classroom. Thus, trainee will teach the class with renewed
courage and confidence to perform better than the previous attempt.
Step6: Re-feedbacks
Again, supervisors provide the feedbacks on trainee’s performance in his second attempt of
skill practice

Efficient Technique And Effective Teaching

 Microteaching can be practiced with a very small lesson or a single concept and a less
number of students.
 The modern-day multimedia equipment such as audio–video recording devices has a
key role in the learning process.
 Microteaching helps in eliminating errors and builds stronger teaching skills for the
beginners and senior teachers. Microteaching increases the self-confidence, improves
the in-class teaching performances, and develops the classroom management skills.
Features Of Micro-Teaching:
1. Micro-Element:
 Micro teaching reduces to complexities of the teaching situation in terms of students,
duration of the lesson and subject matter to be taught so as to enable the trainee to
concentrate on the training process.
 Training is also given in the mastery of only one skill at a time. One should master the
components of the task of teaching before he attempts to perform effectively the
complicated task of teaching at macro-level.
2. Teaching Skills and Teaching Strategies:
i)Pre-Instructional Skill:
This involve writing of instructional objectives, sequencing and organising knowledge to be
presented in order to achieve specific objectives, appropriate content, proper organisation,
selection of proper audio-visual aids etc
ii) Instructional skills:
Like skills of introducing a lesson, skills of explaining and illustrating, reinforcement,
probing questions, reinforcing pupil participation, diagnosing pupil’s difficulties etc.
(iii) Post-Instructional skills:
Like skills of writing test items, interpreting pupils, performance in a test, planning remedial
measures etc.
3. The feed-back Element:
In the present system of assessing the teaching competency of the trainees, feedback is
given by the supervisor.
(a) Oral feedback by the supervising teachers.
(b) Observation schedules filled in by the peer group participating in the micro- lesson
(c) Audio-tape recording is a source of accurate feedback.
(d) Video-tape recording provides the most accurate and powerful source of feedback.
4. Safe Practice Ground:
A micro-teaching laboratory appears to possess all the inherent features of the classroom.
5.The Teaching Models:
The trainees have many opportunities to study the desired patterns of behaviour through a
tape or film of teaching models or a demonstration given by the supervisor.
Characteristics of Microteaching
 Duration of teaching as well as number of students are less.
 Content is divided into smaller units.
 Only one teaching skill is considered at a time.
 Provision of immediate feedback.
 In micro teaching cycle, there is facility of re- planning, re-teaching and re-evaluation.
 It puts the teacher under the microscope
 All the faults of the teacher are observed.
 The problem of discipline can also be controlled.
Comparison Between Micro Teaching and Traditional Teaching
Micro teaching
1. Class consists of a small group of 6 to 10 students.
2. The teacher takes up one skill at a time.
3. Duration of time for teaching is 5 to 7 minutes.
4. There is immediate feed- back.
5. Teaching is carried on under controlled situation.
6. The role of the supervisor is specific and well defined to improve teaching.
7. Pattern of classroom interaction can be studied objectively.
Traditional Teaching
1. Class consists of 40 to 60 students.
2. The teacher practices several skills at a time.
3. The duration is 40 to 45 minutes.
4. Immediate feed-back is not available.
5. There is no control over situation.
6. The role of the supervisor is vague ( not clear).
7. Pattern of classroom interaction cannot be studied.
Procedure of Micro teaching:
1. Skill definition:
The pupil-teacher or the supervisor defines a certain skill. The skills of micro-teaching are
defined regarding the teaching behaviours in order to procure knowledge of required skills,
which they have to focus on.
2. Demonstration:
The demonstration is the second step in the process. Experts demonstrate the specific skill by
themselves or with the help of audio\video tape recordings to the teacher trainee. This gives
an idea to the teachers to work accordingly.
3. Lesson planning:
This step is the first action by the student-teacher. The trainee teacher plans a short lesson
through which he/she could practice the skill. This microteaching lesson plan is done with the
help of his supervisor.
4. Conducting lesson:
Once the planning is done, according to the targeted skill the pupil-teacher teaches the
planned lesson to the group of students. These lessons are observed by supervisors and pupil
teachers.
Further, they are videotaped, audio-taped, or televised through a CCTV camera. These tapes
are later used for self-evaluation as well.

5. Discussion and conclusion:

Once the teaching session comes to an end it is followed by a concluding session. The
concluding session consists of feedback from the supervisor.
During this session, the audio or video recording may also be displayed in order to give an
opportunity to evaluate oneself. Moreover, it also boosts the confidence level of the trainee. It
is the best way to reinforce the trainee to work better the next time.
6. Re-planning:
Mastering a skill is an ongoing process. Thus, once the cycle of micro teaching revolves, the
process is repeated. This repetition involves the re-planning of the lesson plan. The aim of
this re-planning is to master the skill mentioned earlier.
7. Re-teaching:
On completion of the re-planning of the lesson, it is again taught to another group of students
from the same class. The time duration is kept as same as the previous class. This method
contributes in practicing the skill repeatedly.
8. Re-discussion:
At the end of the re-teaching session, the discussion and conclusion step is repeated. These
discussions and suggestions encourage the performance of the trainee. Thus, the process of
feedback is procured to enhance performance furthermore.
9. Redoing:
After the end of every session, this cycle is repeated. The repetition is continued until the
required skill is mastered. This process is repeated while attaining all the required skills.
Phases of Microteaching:

1. Knowledge acquisition:
This is the first phase of micro teaching. It includes the collection of data. In this phase, the
trainee teacher gathers knowledge about the required skills by reading different literature as
well as going through certain demonstrating videos.
Further, this phase includes the understanding of required skill in a rational manner, as a
classroom component.
2. Skill acquisition:
This is the working phase of the micro-teaching program. Under this phase, the trainee
teacher is asked to prepare lessons and practice skills based on the model presented at the
start.
Here, the two important factors of micro teaching are the feedback and the setting. Setting
includes the length of the lesson, the duration of the class, the skill to be obtained, the
supervisor and the students.
3. Transferring phase:
This is the last and major phase of micro-teaching. Here the trainee comes out in a real
situation, which is not controlled.
Here the teachers, as well as the students, get the platform to learn and grow. This takes place
in a real classroom, unlike the previous stages of micro teaching.
Microteaching session involve around 5 R as follows

Skills of Micro teaching Techniques

1. Introduction Skill
2. Skill of Probing Questions
3. Skill of Explanation
4. Skill of Stimulus Variation
5. Skill of Black-board Writing
6. Skill of Achieving Closure
1. Introduction Skill:
 Establishing rapports with the learners
 Linking with past experiences
 Link between introduction and main parts
 Use of appropriate devices/ techniques like questioning, examples, etc.
2. Skill of Probing Question:
• Probing questions are those which help the pupils to think in depth about the various
aspects of the problem.
• By asking such questions again, the teacher makes the pupils more thoughtful.
• Enable the pupils to understand the subject deeply.
3. Skill of Explanation
It involves the ability of a teacher to describe logically ‘How’, ‘Why’ and ‘What’ of
concept Precautions for skill of Explaining:
a) in simple language.
b) should not be given the shape of an advice.
c) should be in a sequence.
d) should be according to the age, experience and mental level of the pupils
4. Skill of Stimulus Variation
 Teacher movement
 Teacher gestures
 Change in voice
 Focusing
 Change in the interaction pattern
 Pausing
 Student’s physical participation
5.Skill of Black-board Writing
Components of the skill of blackboard writing are:
i. Legibility
ii. Size and alignment
iii. Highlighting main points
iv. Utilization of the space
v. Blackboard summary
vi. Correctness
 vii. Position of the teacher and
viii. Contact with the pupils.
6. Skill of Achieving Closure
 Questions and statements by the teacher related to the consolidation of the major
points covered during the lesson
 Opportunities provided by the teacher to the pupils for linking the present knowledge
with the past knowledge.
 Opportunities provided by the teacher to the pupils for applying the knowledge gained
during the lesson to the new situations.
Feedback in Micro teaching
 Helpful information or criticism that is given to someone to say what can be done to
improve a performance, product etc.
 The success of micro teaching depends on feedback.
 It is used in various forms in case of micro teaching by the supervisor, video-tape,
films, T.V., which are various sources of feedback.
Merits of Micro-Teaching
1. It is an effective feedback device for the modification of teacher’s behaviour.
2. It is highly individualized type to teacher training.
3. It is useful for developing teaching efficiency in pre-service and in-service teacher training
programme.
4. It helps in systematic and objective observation by providing specific observation
schedule.
5. It helps in acquiring various types of skills which ultimately form the basis of successful
teaching.
6. It reduces the complexities of normal class-room teaching such as size of class, time and
problem of discipline.
7. It is a training device for improving teaching practice and to prepare effective teachers.
8. Teaching is a complicated type of activity. Micro-Teaching simplifies it so as to make it
suitable for the beginner teachers.
9. It develops the feeling of confidence among the teachers.
10. It provides economy in mastering the teaching skills. The use of video-tape enables the
trainee to analyse his own teaching performance.
11. It can be done either in real class-room conditions or simulated conditions.
12. It focuses on training for the practice of instructional skills, mastery of certain curricular
materials and practice of techniques of teaching.
13 It permits increased control and regulates teaching practice.
14. It enables the trainee to make progress in developing teaching skills at his own rating
depending upon ability.
15. Trainees get satisfaction when they hear and see themselves through audio- video-tapes
Demerits of Micro-Teaching
1. Through Micro-Teaching one trainee is trained at a time.
2. It is more time consuming as a trainee will take 35 minutes to practice one skill only.
3. It presents fragmented view of teaching.
4. The immediate feedback which is a must may not be feasible in all conditions.
5. Due to short lesson of 6 minutes, a trainee cannot get training in evaluation, diagnostic and
remedial skills.
6. It cannot fit in Indian conditions and situations due to its short practice period which may
create academic and administrative problems in the schools.
7. It depresses the creativity of teachers. During teaching a teacher evolves something new
but he has to stop as the micro lesson ends.
8. Micro-Teaching can be carried on successfully only in controlled environment but
generally it is found classroom situations are flexible.
9. It wastes a lot of time of students. Each micro lesson goes on for 5 to 10 minutes where the
main emphasis is on teaching technique, learning by students is almost ignored.
10. Micro-Teaching alone may not be sufficient. There is need of integrating it with other
teaching techniques.
Benefits or Advantages of Micro Teaching:
Micro-teaching is a platform for beginner teachers to improve teaching competencies. Here
are few micro teaching benefits
1. The elasticity of practice:
Micro-teaching helps in developing various skills in trainees as well as the current teaching
staff. It helps in improving the handling skills of the teachers. It gives better opportunities due
to small-scale teaching.

2. Confidence booster:
Micro teaching is a personality enhancer too. Due to several micro-teaching activities and
practices, micro teaching effectively increases the confidence level of the teachers. Moreover,
the experience of teaching enables them to better classroom management.
3. Budget oriented:
Unlike other various programs and seminars that are very costly, micro teaching program is
budget-oriented. Teachers can practice within the real class or at any other place.
4. More learning and less damage:
Micro teaching program is conducted with no more than 3-4 students at a time. This makes it
possible to acquire a better teaching experience. In addition, it lessens the chances of
mistakes.
5. Improves attitude:
A positive attitude contributes to better results. Thus, one of the objectives of this program is
to guide the trainees to attain a positive attitude towards any criticism. As a result, negative
feedbacks given in a positive way helps to motivate the trainees to strive for betterment.
6. Promotes systematic lesson planning:
Lesson planning is one of the skills that a teacher needs to master. Micro teaching program,
within a given content, helps the trainee to prepare systematic lesson plans.
7. Instant feedback:
Feedbacks are the best way to improve. Micro teaching enables the teachers to gain instant
feedback from the supervisors. Instant feedback gives more potential for rectifying mistakes.
8. Mastering skills:
This program helps in mastering types of micro teaching skills and strategies like lecturing,
questioning, probing and initiating discussions. Further, it helps in improving a separate
teaching style.
Limitations or Disadvantages of Micro Teaching:
The following mentioned are a few micro teaching limitations.
1. Hampers creativity:
Creativity is the core of any job. It flows along with the task. However, in the process of
micro teaching, due to the limited period, it becomes difficult to bring out that creativity.
2. Training Staff:
Better teaching promotes a better learning experience. Similarly, for better teaching, one
needs to undergo better training as well.
Micro teaching course benefits teachers in gaining that experience, but it requires well-
trained educators to train the teachers. Without a proper educating staff, it is impossible to
implement micro teaching course.
3. Lesser student’s lesser interest:
Teaching is an art. However, not everyone is capable of teaching. Any job needs passion and
interest. They play a key role in driving the person to strive for improvement.
In the micro teaching program, there are maximum 3-4 students, therefore, lesser students fail
to motivate the teacher to improve. Instead, there are chances of teachers losing their interest
altogether.
4. Wastes a lot of time:
Micro teaching is teacher-oriented activity. Here, the focus is on improving efficiency in
teaching techniques. Each session lasts around 5 – 10 minutes minimum. During this period,
the aim is to develop teaching skills and thus student learning is ignored. It certainly wastes
the time of student, as it does not benefit him.
Further, for practising several times, various students are called at different period. This may
also hamper their overall academic performance. Thus, it is advisable to conduct the training
program keeping in mind all the factors.
5. Training period timing:
Micro teaching program is undoubtedly a benefiting course for the teaching staff. It is a
promising method for the holistic development of the teachers in the teaching field.
However, there is one minor drawback of this program. The training period is not enough to
develop all the required skills properly. In addition, one trainee needs approximately 35
minutes to practice once. Not more than ten trainees can practice once within five hours. It is
certainly a time-consuming program.
6. Not realistic and practical:
Micro teaching is a very advanced form of learning however; it does have its own limitation.
When it comes to teaching a diverse level of students at once, it becomes a hassle. During the
training, the strength of the students is limited however when the strength of students is
increased it seems like a problem.
This program manages to keep the teachers away from real classroom problems. As a result,
trainees struggle in maintaining classroom behaviour. Moreover, the artificial situation does
not help in preparing teachers for the real-time situation.
7. One alone is not sufficient:
Micro teaching is a concept innovated at Stanford University by Professor Robert Bush and
Dwight Allen. One of the principles of micro teaching is skill enhancement.
However, these skills are targeted one at a time and so not all skills are developed within the
given period. Thus, integration of different micro teaching techniques is needed.
8. One at a time:
Apart from the skills, micro teaching involves only one trainee at a time. For a single session
of training, it requires approximately 35 minutes.
Thus, the single trainee can practice only once in 35 minutes. It is not only time consuming
but also an irritating process for the supervisors if there are more than ten trainees in a batch.
Micro teaching is indeed an advanced level of a teaching program that enables the teachers to
gain confidence before stepping into the profession of a teacher.
Thus, implementing micro teaching programs for new teachers as well as in-service teachers
are an ideal way to set foot with the world. Pros and cons are a part of every innovation and
thus keeping in mind those aspects one should opt for a suitable program. Micro teaching is a
widely accepted technique adopted and approved by various institutions.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
Introduction
Problem-based learning is a student-centric instructional strategy where students
collaboratively solve problems & reflect on their experiences. It is an inquiry-based method
of instruction that guided students to solutions of real-world problems through cooperative
group work & builds critical thinking skills.
Definition of Problem-Based learning ‘The principal idea behind problem –based learning
is that the starting points should be a problem, a query, or a puzzle that the learner wishes to
solve’ -D.J. Boud(1985)
Common Features of Problem-Based Learning
 Learning is initiated by a problem.
 Problems are based on complex, real-world situations.
 All information needed to solve the problem is not given initially.
 Students identify, find & use appropriate resources.
 Students work in a permanent group.
 Learning is active, integrated, cumulative &connected.
Use of PBL
  To acquire subject matter knowledge.
 Motivate learners to learn.
 Help learners with retention.
 Develop student’s thinking skills.
 Developing student’s key skills relevant to employment such as interpersonal
communication skills.
 Fostering professional competencies and confidence together with professional
identity.
 Mirroring the inter disciplinary team process graduates will use in work and research.
 Linking theory and practice.
 Encourage learners to integrate knowledge from different subjects, disciplines and
sources.
 Having a sense of belonging and friendship.
 Having a sense of fun while learning.
 Expressing in operational form a philosophy of learning that is student-centric and
problem focused.
PBL cycle
The PBL cycle starts with
 Applying. (Planning effective use of learning).
 The second step is experiencing (activity phase)
 The third step involves sharing (exchanging reactions and observations).
 The fourth step includes processing (discussing patterns and dynamics.
 The fifth step relates to generalizing (developing and real-world principles).
Process of Problem-Based Learning
 Presentation of problem
 Organize ideas & prior knowledge (what do you do?)
 Pose questions (What we need to know?)
 Assign responsibility for questions, discuss resources
 Research questions, summarize, analysis findings
 Reconvene, report on research
 Integrate new information, refine questions
 Resolution of the problem (How did we do?)
Problem solving as a method of teaching
The problem-solving method of teaching is the learning method that allows children to learn
by doing. This is because they are given examples and real-world situations so that the theory
behind it can be understood better, as well as practice with each new concept or skill taught
on top of what was previously learned in class before moving onto another topic at hand.
Definition
The problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appears to interfere with the
attainment of goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment in spite of interferences. – Skinner
Purposes of problem solving
 To train the students in the act of reasoning.
 To give practical knowledge.
 To discover new knowledge.
 To solve a puzzling problem.
 To help overcome the obstacles or interferences in the attainment of objectives.
 To help in an individual’s as well as society’s progress.
Essentials features of problem solving
 The problem should be meaningful.
 It should have correlation with life.
 It should arise out of the student’s real need.
  Students must possess some background knowledge of the problem.
 The problem should be clearly defined.
 The solution of the problem should be found out by the students under the guidance of
the teacher.
Steps in problem solving
 Recognizing the problem
 Defining the problem.
 Collecting relevant data and information
 Organizing conclusion
 Drawing and testing conclusion

Methods and approaches to problem solving

1. Inductive method.
2. Deductive method.
3. Combination of inductive & deductive method.
Inductive method
The inductive method is a method of development. The student is led to discover the truth
about him. It includes:
1. Observation of the given material
2. Discrimination & analysis noting differences & similarities.
3. Abstraction & Generalization.
4. Application or Verification.
Deductive method
In this method rules, generalizations and principles are provided to students and they are
asked to verify them with the help of particular examples.
Combined method
Induction is followed by deduction and deduction is followed by induction. According to
Miller, induction is the making of the tools of thought and deduction is the using of the tools.
Get the learners to make suggestions by encouraging them. Give them time to evaluate each
suggestion carefully. Give them time to organize material. Set up an atmosphere of freedom
in the class.
Role of teacher in problem solving
Get the students to define the problem clearly. Aid the learners to keep the problem in mind.
Advantages
 Improves problem solving abilities.
 It is student centric rather than teacher centric.
 It is an activity of collaboration.
 Helps in the development of constructivism.
 Allows for multiple intelligence development.
 Offers opportunity of extended time frames.
 Provides a deeper understanding of knowledge.
 It develops in developing good study habits.
 It affords opportunities for participation in social activities.
 The learners learn to be self-dependent.
 Discussion help develop the power of expressions of students.
 It provides opportunities to the teachers to know their students in detail.
 Students learn facts that are meaningful and have been discovered by their own
efforts.
 It helps in the maintenance of discipline.
 Learning becomes more interesting in place of dread.
 It gives the power of critical judgment.
 It helps verify an option.
 It satisfies curiosity.
 It helps learn how to act in a new situation.

Disadvantages
  PBS involves mental activity only.
 There is a lack of suitable references and source books for the learners.
 It involves a lot of time & teachers find it difficult to cover the prescribed syllabus.
Problem Solving methods need very capable teachers to provide effective guidance
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
Introduction:
Self-activity as the basic principle of learning is universal in its application. An individual
can learn only through her own reactions to situations. There can be no learning where there
has been no self-activity. This principle of self-activity may be stated simply: A student
learns through her own activities. The process of learning in which the learner assumes
primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating a learning project. The
learner chooses what to learn and how to learn, and also decides when to continue and when
to end the learning project. A process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without
the help of others, to diagnose their learning goals, identify resources for learning, select and
implement learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes. It is also known as adult
learning.
Definition:
 Self-directed learning as a “process in which individuals take initiative, with or
without the help of others, in diagnosing their own learning needs, formulating goals,
identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes.” - Malcolm
Knowles, 1975
 Self-directed learning is a process in which the learner initiating learning making
decisions about what and how to learn self in order to achieve a particular task. -
Neema Baskar
 ‘Self -directed learning is any increase in knowledge, skill, accomplishment, or
personal development that an individual selects & brings about by his or her own
efforts using any method in any circumstances at any time’ -Gibbons (2002)
Purposes:
• To plan and participate in one’s own learning activities.
• To develop the capacity of learning and thinking of learner.
• To develop the sense of independence by enhancing emancipatory learning.
• To develop the problem-solving approaches.
• To develop time management skills.
 • To develop decision making skills.
Process:
It involves a continual process of:
 Self -motivation
 Self-management
 Self-monitoring
 Self-modification
Self-motivation:
 Motivation affects the learning strategies and cognitive processes an individual
employs (Dweck & Elliott, 1983). It increases the likelihood that people will pay
attention to something, study and practice it, and try to learn it in a meaningful
fashion. It also increases the likelihood that they will seek help when they encounter
difficulty.
 Motivation directs an individual toward certain goals and fulfill their objectives.
Self-management:
 Establishes clear goals
 Thoroughly gathers information
 Persistently stays with a task
 Uses a systematic approach to problem solving, organizational planning, and
decision-making.
 Uses articulate, thoughtful communication
 Continuous process
Self-monitoring:
 Consideration of the ramifications of thoughts, plans, decisions, and actions
 Metacognition - the process of consciously monitoring one’s own thinking
 Self -reflection - process of reflecting on one’s own thinking patterns, plans,
decisions, and actions.
Self-modification
 Revises strategies and implies a great effort to maximize his/her effectiveness based
on feedback
 Changes in one’s behaviour based on the data gathered during self-monitoring and on
feedback received from others.
Skill needed to an effective self-directed Learning
• Goal setting skills.
• Processing skills.
• Decision making skills.
• Self-awareness.
• Content competence
• Other cognitive skills
Goal Setting Skills
Here the individual identifies the problem rather than developing a cognitive ability to engage
in problem identification and solving. They have a good observation skills and ability to
determine what is important in their learning environment.
Processing Skills
Observing- the ability to see and understand. Seeing and translating- the ability to translate
visual information to notes and records. Reading -the ability to read, translate and compared
written material. Listing -the ability to receive and process aural information and related it is
existing information schemes.

Decision Making Skills

This denotes the learner’s thinking ability. Learner must develop the ability to identify,
prioritize; select validate, evaluate and interpret information obtained through processing.
Self-Awareness
The successful self-directed learner has the ability to be aware self. It enables the individuals
to be aware of their learning processes their weakness and strengths to know of their ability to
use different in their environment. To know when, how and what is distracting in their
environment. To know when they need assistance, and to have a realistic perception of their
ability to achieve learning goal.
Other Cognitive Skills
Other cognitive skills appear to be associated with self-directed learning success. They are-
• Sensory- including ability to select, identify and classify information
• Memory- working memory is important in the processing of information before it is
assimilated into existing long-term memory.
• Elaboration-includes the ability to taken item from working memory and process it
by imaging, deducing, discriminating generalizing etc.
Principles of Self-Directed Learning
• Self-directed learning should be congruent with lifelong, natural & individual
learning drives.
• It should be adapted to the maturation, transformations & transitions experienced by
students.
• It should be concerned with all aspects of a full life.
• It should employ a full range of human capacities, including senses, emotion &
action as well as intellects.
• The self-directed learning activities should be conducted in setting suited to their
development.
Application of self-directed learning in nursing Education
Individual projects: - A student undertake research projects individually by the
guidance of the teacher, the projects are completed. The projects are where the
students take up and in varied settings.
Case studies: - Case study as a method of teaching probably has been used in the
teaching of nursing more extensively and for longer time than any other method. The
case study describes the life history of an individual or all of the factors which affect a
situation. It tries to give as much breadth and depth of an individual in situation.
 Selection criteria: The learner should be enthusiastic. The materials should be
available and appropriate. Guide or advisor should be available if needed. Learner
should be physically and mentally healthy. Learner should be able to select the tools
and methods that they use, the technologies that could be used to support the approach
are largely dependent on the students. Working collaboratively with others (people
and resources).
Role of Teacher in Self- Directed learning
• Teach inquiry skills, decision making, personal developments & self-evaluation of
work.
• Help learners develop positive attitudes & feelings of independence related to
learning.
• Help learners acquire the needs & assessment techniques necessary to discover what
objectives they should set.
• Help the learners identify the starting point for a learning project & understand the
relevant modes of examination & reporting.
• Create a partnership with the learner by negotiating a learning contact for goals,
strategies & evaluation criteria.
• Make sure that learners are aware of the objectives, learning strategies, resources &
evaluation criteria once they are decided.
• Teach inquiry skills, decision making, personal development & self-evaluation of
work.
• Act as advocates for educationally underserved populations to facilitate their access
to resources.
• Help match resources to the needs of the learners.
• Help learners locate resources.
• Encourage critical thinking skills.
Advantages of Self-Directed learning
 Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners.
 It helps the learner develop a sense of responsibility.
 It can encourage students to develop their own rules & leadership patterns.
 It helps the learners to be motivated &persistent, independent, self-disciplined, self-
confident & goal oriented.

Disadvantages of Self- Directed Learning

  Learners can easily be distracted by their own needs, assumptions, values &
misperceptions.
 Research has shown that some adults are unable to engage in self-directed learning
because they lack independence, confidence or resources.
 Self-directed learning needs to be combined with other learning methods for content
to be fully learned.
SIMULATION
Simulation is role-playing where the process of teaching is displayed artificially & an effort
to practice some important skills of communication is made. The teacher & students simulate
an actual life situation or a person’s actual role.
Types of Simulation in Nursing Education
Nursing students may be familiar with types of simulation in nursing education, such as
standardized patients, role playing, and low-fidelity mannequins. Yet, nursing education uses
so many more types of simulation.
1. Unfolding Case Studies
Unfolding case studies change over a period of time in a way that the student cannot predict.
They help students practice their patient assessment skills. Unfolding case studies allow
students to dive deep into their patients' complex situations, and because some of them are
available at no cost, they are cost effective.
Unfolding case studies may also prepare students to apply clinical reasoning and critical
thinking skills.
2. High-fidelity Mannequins
High-fidelity mannequins are computer-controlled full-body mannequins. They most closely
replicate the responses, physiology, and anatomy of a patient. Because they are the most
adaptable form of simulation, high-fidelity mannequins are typically the most favourable.
However, they are also one of the most expensive.
3. Low-fidelity Mannequins
Low-fidelity mannequins include two-dimensional displays, static models, and partial-task
simulators. They are the least real type of simulation. They can help students build
knowledge because they allow students to go at their own pace. They can also help students
learn a specific skill, such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation or intravenous insertion.

4. Partial-task Simulators
 Partial-task simulators are a body part, such as an arm or a head, that allow nursing
students to practice a skill many times without causing wear and tear or using more
expensive equipment.
5. Volunteers Who Act as Standardized Patients
Standardized patients are volunteers who behave in a realistic way to simulate clinical
interaction. Standardized patients can make practicing communication and assessment skills
more successful. Some of these skills include taking a patient history, asking for informed
consent, explaining a procedure, and giving bad news.
6. Role-Playing
Role-playing asks students to act out a situation. Because role-playing does not require any
props or realistic surroundings, this method of simulation is relatively low cost. Despite its
low-fidelity, role-playing can benefit students, especially for changing attitudes or team
training.
7. Virtual Reality
Virtual reality uses computers and standardized patients to create a realistic simulation. This
form of simulation is still new and gaining popularity in healthcare. Virtual reality can be
used to teach patients about complex situations with many people involved because some
technologies allow students to care for more than one patient at a time.
8. E-learning
E-learning includes all simulations on the computer. These can be a video computer program
explaining how to use a device or a highly complicated virtual reality situation where
students interact with patients and other healthcare providers.
9. A Combination of Simulations
A combination of simulations uses two or more of the previous types of simulations to create
a more realistic simulation. It can also help students practice more than one skill at a time.
For example, an instructor could secure a suture cushion to a standardized patient. In this
simulation, the student can practice suturing a wound while getting informed consent and
explaining the procedure.
Principles of Simulation
• Players take on roles that are representative of the real world & then make decisions
in response to their assessment of the setting they find themselves in.
• The experience simulated are consequences that relate to their decisions & general
performance.
 • Monitoring the results of their actions to reflect upon the relationship between their
own decisions & the resultant consequences.
Values of the Simulation Techniques
• Enables the learners to learn to learn directly from experience.
• Promotes a high level of critical thinking.
• Develops in the students an understanding of the decision- making process.
• Enables the individual to emphasize with the real-life situations.
• Provides feedback to the learners on the consequences of actions & decision made.
• Motivates the students by making real life situations exciting & interesting.
• Enables teachers & learners to assess the realism of the situation by uncovering
misconceptions.
Real Life Situations
Simulation motivates the learners by making real life situations exciting and interesting.
Simulation enables teachers and learners to assess the realism of the situation by uncovering
misconceptions.
Modes of simulation
1. Full body mannequins
These simulators physically look like a patient; however, the complexity of full body
simulators varies from just being physically like a patient to be sophisticated electronically
controlled simulator, which has ability to provide most of the physiological or pathological
responses when remotely controlled through computer device.
2. Part task trainers:
The part task trainers are the models that are primarily used for practicing the technical
nursing skills, example a gluteal intramuscular injection model or airway trainer model.
These models are available as the specific part rather than the full body, which makes them
more cost effective and easy to handle and store.
3. Simulated patients
They are popularly known as patient actor or standardized patients, they are also called as
clinical teaching associates who are especially trained to behave like a particular patient to
create an artificial clinical scenario. They are especially used for the situations that are
sensitive in nature or require a real individual vital signs monitoring, physical examination,
breast examination etc.
4. Computer generated simulator
The computer-generated simulator may be as simple as computer programme, which
demonstrates the steps of equipment functioning, eg, a mechanical ventilator. They may be as
complex as three-dimensional virtual clinical environment, where students get an opportunity
to virtually interact with virtual patient and health care team.
5. Hybrid simulators
They are the combination of standardized patient and the part task trainer to make clinical
learning more real. For eg. a gravid uterus is worn by a simulated or standardized patient,
where students may have closer to realist experience of the clinical skills, communication
skills and professional behaviour. The specific electronic devices, such as modified
stethoscope, may be used to create the desired physiological or pathological responses such
as adventitious respiratory sounds or abnormal heart sounds.
Procedure of Simulation
1. Selecting the role-players
2. Selecting & discussing skills
3. Planning
4. Deciding the procedure of evaluation
5. Provided practical lesson
Selecting The Role Players
• A small group of 4 or 5 student teachers is selected.
• They are assigned different letters in alphabetical order.
• The role assignment is rotated within the group so as to offer everyone an equal
chance.
Selecting & Discussing Skills
• The skills to be practiced are discussed and the topics to fit in the skill are suggested.
• The group members chose one topic for each exercise.
Planning
• It has to be decided as to who will start the conversation and as to who will top the
interaction and when.
Deciding on Evaluation
• In this step it is decided as to how to record the interaction and how to present it to an
actor.
• This facilitates the process of giving feedback.
Providing Practical Lesson
 The role players should be provided reinforcements on their performance to give them
training for playing their part well.
Activities In Simulation
 Role-playing: The role, false or actual, is performed in an artificial environment. This
may give the student an understanding of a situation or relationship among real-life
participants of the social process. He will gain some perceptions of the actions,
attitudes & insight of persons or situations.
 Sociodrama: It seeks to utilize role-playing as a means finding out the solution to a
problem situation assigned to the role players.
 Gaming: The situations involve out comes affected by decisions made by one or
more decisions.
Advantages of Simulation
 Simulation establishes a setting where theory &practice can be combined.
 Simulation requires the teacher to be an active participant in the process.
 No risk involved.
 Controlled teaching assignments are possible.
 Simulation is a teaching that motivated & involves students.
 Students are not expected to identify the group time & follow.
 It removes the student-teacher polarization.
 Simulation as a universal behavioural mode.
 It gains related to relevance & learning.
 It develops decision-making skills in to action.
 It provides an integrated view & is a vehicle for free interdisciplinary communication.
 It provides dynamic framework.
 Simulation works to bridge the gap between unreal & real.
Disadvantages of Simulation
• Simulation cannot be made in all subject s of the curriculum.
• Simulation cannot be conveniently used in the case of small children because
mechanism is too difficult for them to follow.
• It requires a lot of preparation on the part of teachers.
• Simulation reduces the seriousness of learning.
• It requires minimum feedback sequence to be chosen.
• It is time consuming.
 • It has difficulty in using analytic approach.
CLINICAL TEACHING METHODS
Introduction
In nursing, competency of a nurse is recognized mainly by the demonstration of clinical
skills. Developing clinical skills demands more effort from the side of teachers and students.
Clinical area is a gold mine of learning opportunities and experiences.
Definition

Clinical teaching is time limited process whereby the teacher and student create an
established partnership with in a shared environment in such a way that the teacher’s primary,
operational frame of reference is maintained as the legitimate means for affecting students’
behaviour towards intended purpose.

Purposes

 Provide individualized care.

 Develop high technical competence skills.
 Practice various procedures.
 Collect and analyse the data.
 Conduct research.
 Maintain high standards of nursing practice.
 Become independent enough to practice nursing.
 Develop cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills.
 Meet the needs of clients.
 Improve communication skill and IPR.
 Develop various methods in delivering care.
 To learn diagnostic procedures and skills in giving HE.
 Help in integration of theory into practice.
 Develop proficiency in nursing procedures.
 To assist physician.
 Learn managerial skills.
 To become professionally active member.

Guidelines For Selection of Teaching Methods

  Must be appropriate to objectives and desired behavioural changes.
 Must be in accordance with principles of learning.
 Must be in accordance with the capacity of the student.
 Must be in accordance with availability of resources.
 Must be in accordance with the teacher’s ability to use it effectively and creatively.

Clinical Teaching Methods

1. Nursing case study

2. Nursing case presentation
3. Nursing rounds
4. Bedside nursing clinics
5. Nursing assignment
6. Nursing care conferences
7. Health team conference
8. Process recording
9. Field visits

CASE METHOD/ CASE STUDY

Introduction

In clinical teaching there are various methods of teaching in that case one of the oldest
methods which is used commonly in clinical areas for nursing students. According to
Florence Nightingale the nursing students should keep a note book containing accounts of
exceptionally interesting cases and later quizzed them to find how much they had learned.

Meaning The data concerning an individual, his family and environment, including his
medical history that may be useful in analysing and diagnosing his case or for instructional
purpose. Case method is a close, deep, cumulative and clinical study of a patient.

Definition

“A Case Method is a useful strategy for helping the students learn how to analyse a case,
identify problems and solutions, compare alternate decisions, and arrive at conclusions about
different aspects of patient care.” GABERSON

Purposes
 • Case study provides an opportunity to the students to learn nursing skills using the
problem- solving approach.
• The students learn to identify and define patient’s problems.
• Case study trains students to locate, gather and process the information required to
solve the patient’s health problems.
• It develops a sense of accomplishment for providing individualized comprehensive
care.
• Case method helps the student to solve the patient’s problems by critical and
reflective thinking.
• It emphasizes the patient’s individual personality with unique problems.
• Case method accentuates the health and social aspects of nursing.
• It points out the relationship and cooperation of the various agencies interested in the
patient’s problems and welfare such as social service and public health nursing.

Principles

 The Case study helps a student to make their nursing care study.
 A case study should help a student to study the patient’s state of health and self help
abilities, his cultural background, economic levels of activities.
 Case method should focus on information and facts about patient, his disease
condition and his social and personal history & the application of this knowledge in
rendering nursing care.
 The case method should train a nurse to take responsibility in giving a complete and
comprehensive care to the clients.
 A case method should serve as a excellent tool to demonstrate nursing skills, scientific
knowledge and sociological or psychological insight into the problems of a patient.
 A case method should aim at encouraging evaluation of solutions presented by other
team members.

Forms And Presentation of Case Study

1. Written Case Study.

2. Verbal / Oral Case Study.

Types
1. Case Study.

2. Case Analysis.

3. Case Incident Technique.

Case Study

 The student will be given the opportunity to provide nursing care for specific client.
 After 4 or 5 days of careful study, the student nurse prepares the case study by
comparing with the text.
 The student presents the case before the batch of co learners and general discussion
follows regarding further management of the patient.

Case Analysis

 An analysis of a case or a condition is done by a group of nursing students under the

leadership of the instructor.
 A comprehensive information is presented to the students so as to aid them make
judgment of problem or situation in case.
 No background information is given to them regarding details of the incident at the
time, it is presented.
 The instructor will have facts about case; can be given as requested by the students.

Case Incident Technique

 This technique requires immediate decision and action from a case and presented to
the students for their analysis and decision.

Advantages

Written case

 Provides for individual differences of the student.

 Provides opportunity for self-expression.
 Provides experience in organizing and writing a paper in a scientific manner.
 It provides a source of material for future reference.
Oral case study

 Provides opportunity for the instructor to direct student thinking into new channels
and to correct errors of information.
 Case method serves as a basis for better personal understanding and relationship
between the instructor and the student.
 Case method is time saving.
 It offers an opportunity for a public speaking experience.
 Case method helps the learners to be motivated and persistent, independent, self-
disciplined, self-confident and goal oriented.
 Discussion following presentation provides for the other learners to benefit from other
student’s care plan.
 This serves as a source of motivation to the other students as the other students benefit
from her student.
 The student feels the thrill of achievement in presenting her study to others.

Disadvantages

Written case study

 Written case study provides no opportunity to branch out and incorporate new ideas
once the study is completed.
 Written case method requires a great deal of time to rewrite to an acceptable form.

Oral case study

 Oral case study does not offer an opportunity for writing and other creative
expressions, since only notes are used for the presentation.
 Oral case study leaves no record that may be kept for future reference as it is used
generally.

NURSING CASE PRESENTATION

It is also an important method of clinical teaching for students in healthcare disciplines in

which a patient with unique clinical condition is allotted to a students, who study the patient
in detail including detailed health assessment, diagnostic test, medical surgical management
and present it in a peer group under the supervision of clinical faculty.
Nursing case presentation refers to a formal discussion of a particular patient in details
regarding medical diagnosis, clinical features, diagnostic tests, medical/ surgical treatment,
nursing assessment findings, identified nursing problems and best possible planned nursing
care interventions considering best recommended practices.

Purposes of case presentation

 It provides opportunity for the students to understand a unique clinical condition in

real patient.
 It helps the students to compare the patient’s clinical presentation, diagnostic tests
carried out medical surgical management done with the existing literature and
evidence.
 It also facilitates the students to develop the assessment skill, writing and presentation
skills.
 The case presentation also helps to orient the group of students with the different rare
clinical conditions through peer presentation.

Process of case presentation

 First a patient with a unique clinical condition is chosen by the students.

 Then students collect the detailed information about clinical features, health
assessment findings, reports of diagnostics tests and planned treatment. The
information is collected as either a first-hand information or observation from patient
or referring case sheet already written by the health care team members.
 The case details are compared with existing literature/ evidence and a written report is
prepared or case may be presented orally without a written report of case.
 During case presentation, the peer group may also ask question from the presenter.
 Finally, the supervising clinical teacher should do debriefing of the case and clarify
any doubts of the group.

Advantages of case presentation

 It provides students an opportunity to understand a particular disease condition in a

real situation and solve the nursing problems encountered in particular patient
 It also provides opportunity for the students to speak in a group and answer the
question raised by the students.
  Students also get an opportunity to integrate knowledge to different subjects, such as
anatomy, physiology, microbiology, pathophysiology, pharmacology, diagnostic tests,
medical, surgical and nursing interventions for particular case or disease condition.
 Students get an opportunity to relate the existing scientific literature with the real
disease condition/ patient.

Disadvantages of case presentation

 Good command over language, expression and presentation are required for case
presentation, therefore, in absence of these qualities it is difficult to achieve the better
outcome of learning with this method of clinical teaching.
 It is difficult to get the ideal patient at right time to teach through case presentation
without bothering the patient much for this purpose.

NURSING ROUNDS

Introduction

There are several methods that can be used effectively in clinical teaching. Nursing rounds
are conducted by the head nurse or nurse teacher with the members of her staff or students for
a clear understanding of the disease and the effect of nursing care for each patient.

Definition

“A nursing round is one which presents an overview of certain aspects of the nursing or
medical care of all patients on the ward or of selected patients”. GABERSON

Purpose

• To observe the physical and mental condition of the patient and the progress made
from day to day.
• To observe work of staff.
• To specific observation of the patient and give report to doctor regarding., for
example- wounds, drainage, bleeding.
• To introduce patient to personnel and vice versa.
• To carry out plan made for care of patient.
 • To evaluate result of treatment and patient satisfaction.
• To ensure that safety measures are employed for patient and personnel.
• To orient the nurse /student in taking charge of the patient’s treatment and status of
the patient.
• To teach nursing students or hospital staff regarding specific condition.
• To check any preventable condition in patient such as bedsore, foot drops etc.
• To check emergency equipment near the patient for safety and working order.
• To compare C/F of disease in a patient so that the students gain better insight.
• To prescribe any modification in nursing action.

Types of nursing rounds

 Rounds with doctors.

 Rounds with discuss psychological problem of patient.
 Social service rounds
 Medical round for nurses.
 Round with the physical therapist.
 Nursing rounds

Steps Involved in Rounds

• The entire clinical group of students are assembled at the bedside of a pre-selected
patient who has agreed to participate and who has been briefed before-hand as to his
role in the learning experience.
• The instructor of the student who is caring for the patient briefs the nursing care.
• The staff nurses of the ward are also allowed to contribute certain genuine points
regarding patient care.
• Background information of the patient can be provided away from the bedside.
• The main focus is made on nursing care and only important aspects of the care are
discussed.
• At the end the instructor concludes the discussion by giving her opinion, guidance
and relevant instructions.
• The patient is finally briefed up on the conclusions reached following discussion.
• The staff nurse on duty records all the instructions and suggestions given by the
instructor and a register (providing the information) is maintained in the ward.

Ways of conducting rounds

  When ward rounds are conducted, the teacher goes to the patient’s room with the
group of nurses.
 Outside of the door, out of his hearing, they discuss the objectives, after which they
go in to see the patient and talk for a few moments with him.
 They then move on to the next patient.
 The discussion must necessarily by brief including only the outstanding points if the
purpose is to visit all the patient in the ward.
 Nursing rounds are done in a reporting style regarding the patient’s condition, nursing
care, medical care and prognosis.

Advantages

• It ensures high degree of autonomy among students.

• The presence of the patients as a means to illustrate assessment parameters or
intervention techniques.
• Nursing rounds provides input and feedback from the perspective of patient care and
therefore gives an opportunity to clarify issues related to patient care.
• It facilitates a detailed discussion on the nursing care of a single patient.
• Nursing Rounds helps the students to develop psychomotor skills and inculcate
proper attitude among the nurses.
 Interaction with the senior members promote team spirit and professionalism among
students.
• Nursing Rounds motivate students to develop an ability to discriminate or classify the
patients into high risk, risk, and no risk categories depending on the severity of
illness.
• Helps students to learn in depth regarding a case management.

Disadvantages

• The patient may overhear the discussion and he may not like the thought that he is
being talked about.
• Other patients in the same ward may over hear the discussion which the patient may
not like.
• Insufficient information may lead to inappropriate result.
• There may be distractions in the ward and there could be problems for the nurses to
stand in the ward.
 • It cannot be organized for large group and hence teaching cannot be done for a
greater number of nurses.
• If the nurses are familiar with all the patient’s the discussion may be held in the
conference room.

BEDSIDE NURSING CLINIC

Introduction

Bedside Clinic is one of the clinical teaching methods which is carried out in clinical area and
is one of the best methods of teaching. It is very lively and interesting as it correlates ‘reality
with theory.

Meaning

It is a type of clinical teaching method where nursing supervisor/tutor meet with their
subordinates or nursing students in order to carry out nursing instruction in presence of the
patient at the bedside. It is a teaching in the presence of the patient.

Definition

“A bedside clinic is a process in which a clinical teacher and a group of learners sees a
patient, elicits or verifies physical signs, discusses provisional diagnosis, diagnostic or
therapeutic options in the clinical setting”. GABERSON

Goals of bedside clinic

 Discuss the advantages and challenges of teaching at the bedside.

 Explore strategies for improving teaching at the bedside.
 Review techniques for bedside teaching in the office setting.

Purposes

• To portray nursing problem and to provide a complete picture of the related nursing
care by associating with a specific individual.
• To improve the quality of nursing care.
• To improve the student’s ability to solve nursing problems by detailed study and
analysis of nursing situation.
• Helps the students to sharpen their observation skill in a systematic and organized
manner.
 • To realize the need for understanding every patient as an individual and appreciate
their problems and outlook.
• Provides a learning experience for nursing students to collect information about the
patient.
• To plan and execute nursing care plan according to the needs and problems of the
patient.

Principle

 Observe all aspect of the patient.

 Study the patient rather than the disease.

Members

 Nursing Superintendent
 Nursing Supervisor/Clinical Instruction
 Nursing Subordinates/Nursing Students

Steps Involved in Conducting Bedside Clinic

It involves 3 steps:

 Planning technique
 Instruction before bedside clinic
 Discussion phase

Planning Technique

 Select a patient for whom students have given the care.

 Secure the patients consent, as his co-operation is essential during clinic.
 Determine the clinic to whom it is to be conducted, place, date, and time for clinic to
be held and on what topic the students have to come prepared

Instruction Before Conducting Bedside clinic

 Physical and mental comfort is provided to patient.

 Patient is kept at ease.
 The clinic should not exceed 30 minutes.
 The number of students should not exceed 10-15 in numbers.

Discussion Phase
It is having 4 phases

Phase I – Introduction Phase

Teacher introduces the following to the students:

 Purpose of the clinic

 Background of the patient
 Significant observation to be made
 Patient condition
 Nursing care situation presented by the patient
 Type of question to be used to be asked to patient.

Phase II– Patient – Centred Phase

Students has to:

 Few simple questions are asked to the patient.

 Avoid question which may hurt patient’s feelings.
 Allow the patient to verbalize his needs and how he perceives his problem.
 Thank the patient soon after discussion.

Phase III – Discussion Phase

 In this phase the teacher and student have a discussion regarding patient’s condition
and his behaviour.
 Students clarify their doubts regarding patient’s condition from the teacher.

Phase IV – Evaluation Phase

 The students can be evaluated in terms:

 Information collected by them regarding patient.
 Identifying the patient’s problems.
 Analysing the nursing problem or nursing care.
 Appreciating the patient’s condition and their outlook towards disease.
 Work out nursing care plan with special problems.
 Using of various apparatus for special problems.

Advantages
 • Bedside clinic allows the students to prepare extensively in advance to participate
effectively in patient care.
• It helps the students to develop autonomy.
• It allows students to select patients with disease conditions of common interest.
• It helps the students to ably review and investigate the quality of clinical practice.
• Bedside clinic allows the students to develop and maintain professional competence.
• It promotes a better understanding among the students in terms of health, illness and
health care system.
• Bedside clinic promotes clinical competencies like reasoning, psychomotor and
communication skills among students.
• It develops the ability of the students to evaluate critically and improve own
performance.

Disadvantages

• Bedside clinics may be an encumbrance to the patients.

• Its narrowness limits the utilization of the process.
• Bedside clinic is an expensive procedure.
• It may disturb the privacy of the patient.
• Results in poor standardization.

NURSING ASSIGNMENT

It is the part of learning experience where students are assigned with patients or other
activities concerning patient in the clinical ward/ laboratory. It is through the assignment that
the teacher is able to arouse interest, stimulate right mental promotional attitudes and set forth
good study habits. The students carryout nursing care for the assigned patient under the
supervision of clinical teacher, where they utilize nursing care plan for planning and
implementation of nursing care.

Objectives

 To provide the patient with the best possible nursing care

 To plan assignments which are interesting to nurses and stimulating to their
professional growth
 To provide a well-rounded educational experience for student nurses
 Achieving good ward management
Criteria for effective assignment

 Students are informed about the objectives of their assignment to a particular ward or
unit of the hospital.
 Students are to be oriented to the new clinical area.
 Students are given facilities to practice nursing according to principles taught.
 Assignments have to be assigned according to the consistent level of learning, the
students have reached or attained ranging from the particular nursing procedure to the
complete care of an assigned patient.
 Proper guidance and supervision have to be provided to students during their clinical
experience.
 Students should be given opportunities for working in team.
 Students’ performance should be evaluated and discussed with the students for their
improvement, correction, etc.

Factors to consider

 The previous clinical experience of students should be considered

 Students must be given sufficient time to study patient record
 Assignments should be varied frequently enough to maintain the interest of students
 Sociological and psychological aspect of the patient should be considered
 Proximity of the patients should be considered.

Advantages of nursing assignment

 Students get an opportunity to practice and learned theory of nursing procedures in

real patient scenario.
 Students are able to achieve much realistic confidence and competence in
performance of nursing skills and care.

Disadvantages of nursing assignment

 It is not a suitable method for beginners because direct exposure of real patient may
cause undue anxiety and stress among students
  The constant supervision by the nursing teachers is required in this method of clinical
teaching, otherwise students may not feel comfortable or it may not be safe for the
patient.

NURSING CONFERENCE

Definition

“Nursing Conference is defined as the process in which group discussion is made using
problem solving techniques to determine the ways of providing care for the patients to whom
students are assigned as part of their clinical experience”. GABERSON

Types

1. Group Conference.

2. Individual Conference.

Group conferences

Group conference is a small group teaching method. The students are allowed to participate
actively in the discussion, explaining their own experiences in the clinical area. This helps the
students to develop problem solving skills, team building skills and the ability to express
themselves assertively.

Purposes

 To set objectives and criteria for nursing care.

 To plan methods for improving care.
 To solve problems in good nursing care.
 To evaluate the results of efforts.
 To create team building skills in students and to express oneself assertively.

Individual Conferences

 Focuses on the overall development of the individual student.

 The focus is more directed towards the development of clinical skills.
 It mainly deals with the student nursing care ability, level of performance
achievements and assignments related to the clinical experiences.

Types
  Unplanned or incidental conference
 Planned conference

Purposes

1) To guide in teaching.

2) To acquire more knowledge.

3) To discover the interests, needs and problems of individual students.

4) To help the students to help herself or himself.

5) To clarify class knowledge.

Phases

a) Opening phase.

b) Working phase.

c) Closing phase.

Opening Phase

 The students are informed prior so that discussion is meaningful.

 Patients selected should have typical signs and symptoms.

Working Phase

 Focus is made on patient information such as bio data, family background, past and
present medical history, signs and symptoms, line of care and nursing management.
 The teacher motivates the students to come forward with innovative and creative ideas
suiting the problem or situation.

Closing Phase

 Suggestions derived from various group conferences, relevant to the ward situation is
put into the notice of the staff working in the same area in a friendly manner.

Advantages

 Nursing Conference helps the students to develop problem solving skills.

 It develops team building skills and the ability to express oneself assertively.
 It makes clinical area more interesting place for teaching and learning.
  It provides opportunities for the students to express innovative ideas and to refine
clinical skills.
 It sharpens the critical thinking of the students.
 Nursing Conference helps the students to know about their progress and hence boosts
their self-confidence.
 It helps to boosts the sense of security among the students.
 Nursing Conference helps the teacher to identify the student’s attitude and insight
regarding the problems of their clients.

Disadvantages

 Nursing Conference may not be very beneficial if the students are not accustomed to
the clinical setting.
 It requires a careful planning.
 It is a time-consuming process.
 It portrays the personal problems of the patient which should be maintained
confidential.
 Patient involvement is less in this method of teaching and learning

PROCESS RECORDING

Introduction:

Process recording are the written reports of verbal interactions with clients. They are
verbatim (to the extent that is possible) accounts, written by the nurse or student as a tool for
improving interpretation communication techniques.

DEFINITION:

 Process recording is a written account recording of all that transpired, during and
immediately following the nurse patient interaction. It is recording of the conversation
during the interaction or the interview between nurse and the patient in the psychiatric
setup with the nurse inference.
 Process recording is an exact written report of the conversation between the nurse and
the patient during the time they were together Hudson

Purpose

 To critically analyse communication and its effect on behaviour of the individual.

  To gain the patients confidence and get this cooperation.
 To establish rapport with the patient.
 To study the patients psychological social and emotional behaviour.
 It helps to increase the ability to identify problems and develop skills in solving them.
 It gives students an opportunity to gain the ease and function in written expression
that are important for professional development.

Goals And Objectives

 Establish a therapeutic nurse patient relationship.

 To give necessary health education to the patient.
 To obtain the identification data of the patient.
 To assess the insight of the patient.

Features of process recording

 It is written during and immediately after the therapeutic nurse- patient interaction.
 Process recording also can be used as an excellent clinical teaching method.
 It also has therapeutic purposes, where recorded conversation is used to understand
the patient’s behaviour and problem in depth.

Uses

1. As a teaching learning tool

2. As an evaluation tool.
3. As a therapeutic tool.

Phases

1) Preparing the student

2) Recording nurse patient interaction.

3) Evaluating the interaction by nurse, teacher and the student.

Guidelines

 Goals for working with assigned patients should be written down before starting PR.
 Note important factors in patient’s personality development.
 Mention the therapies which the pt is getting
 Date of PR should be mentioned.
  Time spent with patient should be recorded.
 The setting and situation should be written before conversation.
 Identify pts needs.
 After completion of PR students should give feedback.
 Evaluate the PR as a learning experience at the end of adjustment.

Advantages

 It is the most suitable method of teaching to develop competency in interpreting and

synthesizing the abstract concepts.
 It also provides opportunities for students to develop the good communication skills
through practice of process recording.
 Process recording also helps to develop the keen observation skills and critical
thinking.

Disadvantages

 The process recording as a method of teaching is very time-consuming

 It is not a suitable method of clinical teaching for an average IQ students because it is
a highly complex process.
 The students with poor communication skills cannot be benefited with this method of
clinical teaching.
 Sometimes patients do not offer the cooperation with this complex process of clinical
teaching.

Bethlahem college of nursing

Subject: Communication and educational technology
 Lesson plan on:

Method of
teaching
Prepared by:

Mrs. Jaya Prabha. M.J