6.

3 Processing Topologies – Point-wise Explanation

The selection of processing topology in an IoT deployment is critical

for energy efficiency, bandwidth optimization, and latency
management. IoT processing can be broadly classified into on-site and
off-site processing, with off-site further divided into remote and
collaborative processing.

1. On-site Processing

 Data is processed at the source itself (sensor node).

 Suitable for applications with very low tolerance for latency,

e.g., healthcare monitoring, flight control systems.

 Advantages:

o Immediate processing prevents missing fast temporal

changes.

o Ensures real-time alerts in critical scenarios.

 Example:

o Fire detection system where a temperature sensor detects a

rise in temperature and the sensor node processes the
event locally to generate an alert.

 Optional: Data can be forwarded to a remote system for further

analysis or storage.

 Figure Reference: 6.2

2. Off-site Processing
  Data is processed away from the source, at remote or shared
computing nodes.

 Suitable for non-time-critical applications and large-scale

deployments.

 Benefits:

o Lower cost than on-site processing.

o Simpler sensor nodes at the site.

o Enables reuse of high-power processors for multiple

nodes.

 Subtypes:

a) Remote Processing

 Sensor nodes collect and send data to a remote server or

cloud.

 Allows massive scalability with centralized processing.

  Limitations:

o High network bandwidth usage.

o Relies heavily on network connectivity.

 Example:

o Fire detection sensors sending data to a cloud processor for

decision-making.

 Figure Reference: 6.3

b) Collaborative Processing

 Nearby nodes share processing power locally when network

connectivity is limited or absent.

 Reduces latency and network bandwidth usage.

 Economical for vast, distributed deployments.

 Often implemented using mesh networks for easy collaboration.

 Example:

o Agricultural monitoring where multiple sensor nodes process

soil and environmental data collectively at the field level.

 Figure Reference: 6.4

Summary:

 On-site processing: Fast, real-time, expensive.

 Remote processing: Centralized, cost-efficient, bandwidth-heavy.

 Collaborative processing: Local sharing, reduces network

dependency, ideal for large-scale or low-connectivity scenarios.

6.5 Processing Offloading

Definition:
Processing offloading is the paradigm where data processing tasks are
shifted away from resource-constrained IoT devices to other layers
(edge, fog, remote server, or cloud) to enable dense, energy-efficient,
miniaturized, and cost-effective IoT deployments.

Purpose:

 Reduces the burden on IoT devices.

 Minimizes energy consumption at the source.

 Enables scalable and efficient handling of massive IoT data.

Illustration:

 IoT devices (temperature, camera sensors, etc.) detect events like

fire or surveillance.

 Processing can occur:

1. On-site – directly at the sensor node.

2. Edge – within a local network cluster.

3. Fog – at a local gateway serving multiple devices.

 4. Cloud/Remote server – centralized processing for global
access.

 Figure 6.5 shows the multi-layer processing structure from sensor

to cloud.

6.5.1 Offload Location

Where the processing is offloaded affects cost, latency, scalability, and

sustainability.

1. Edge:

o Processing near the data source.

o Handles aggregation, data manipulation, and bandwidth

reduction locally.

o Advantage: Reduces network load and latency.

o Disadvantage: Limited processing power; may not handle

complex analytics.

2. Fog:

o Decentralized computing between IoT devices and the cloud.

o Conserves network bandwidth, reduces latency, and

enables rapid mobility support.

o Fog nodes are localized and serve smaller geographic areas.

o Advantage: Efficient for geographically distributed IoT

deployments.

o Disadvantage: Limited coverage and resources compared to

the cloud.

3. Remote Server:

o Processing offloaded to dedicated remote servers.

o Reduces the processing load on IoT devices.

o Advantage: Powerful processing for large data sets.

o Disadvantage: Scalability and maintenance challenges;

costlier than fog.

4. Cloud:
 o Offloads processing to cloud infrastructure with virtually
unlimited resources.

o Enables on-demand scalability and global access.

o Advantage: High scalability, resource flexibility, and minimal

local infrastructure.

o Disadvantage: High latency, dependency on network

connectivity, and potential bandwidth costs.

6.5.2 Offload Decision Making

Determining where and how much data to offload is critical for

efficiency.

1. Naive Approach:

o Rule-based, offload data to the nearest location.

o Advantage: Simple and easy to implement.

o Disadvantage: Not suitable for dense or high-data IoT

deployments; ignores data complexity.

2. Bargaining-Based Approach:

o Optimizes multiple Quality of Service (QoS) parameters

like bandwidth and latency.

o Uses collaborative optimization rather than prioritizing few

devices.

o Example: Game theory-based resource allocation.

o Advantage: Balanced QoS across the network.

o Disadvantage: Slightly processing-intensive during decision

making.

3. Learning-Based Approach:

o Uses historical data and trends to optimize offloading.

o Example: Machine learning-based predictive offloading.

o Advantage: Improves performance over time.

o Disadvantage: High memory and processing requirement

during decision making.
6.5.3 Offloading Considerations

Factors to consider when deciding when, where, and how much to

offload:

1. Bandwidth:

o Maximum data transfer capacity of the network.

o High bandwidth supports offloading large datasets; limited

bandwidth may cause congestion.

2. Latency:

o Delay between start and completion of processing.

o Can arise from network transmission or processing speed.

o Critical for real-time applications (e.g., fire detection).

3. Criticality:

o Importance of the task.

o High-criticality tasks (fire detection) require low-latency

offloading.

o Low-criticality tasks (agriculture monitoring) can tolerate

delays.

4. Resources:

o Available processing power and algorithms at the offload

location.

o Example: Multimedia processing requires high

computational resources, unlike scalar data.

5. Data Volume:

o Total amount of data generated by IoT sources.

o Offload location must handle the capacity of high data

volumes, especially in dense deployments.
7.2 IEEE 802.15.4 Standard
Definition:
IEEE 802.15.4 is a low data rate wireless personal area network
(WPAN) standard designed for monitoring and control applications
with low-power consumption and extended device lifetime.

1. Operational Layers

 Operates primarily at the Physical (PHY) and Data Link layers.

 Adds two layers above them for IoT communication:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC) – interfaces lower layers with

upper layers.

2. Service-Specific Convergence Sub-layer (SSCS) – ensures

communication with higher protocols.

 Figure 7.1 shows IEEE 802.15.4 stack vs. OSI stack.

2. Modulation and Channel Access

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

o Expands bandwidth, enhances security.

o High tolerance to noise/interference.

 Encoding Methods:

o Low-speed: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

o High-speed: Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (O-

QPSK)

 Channel Access:

o Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

(CSMA-CA) prevents collisions.

o Temporal multiplexing allows multiple users/nodes to share

channels efficiently.

3. Transmission Characteristics

 Short, infrequent packets with a low duty cycle (<1%) for

minimal power consumption.

 Power level: Min –3 dBm (0.5 mW).

  Transmission range:

o Typical: 10 m – 75 m

o Best-case outdoor: Up to 1000 m

 Mostly Line-of-Sight (LOS) transmission.

4. Network Topologies

1. Star Topology: Central coordinator communicates with all nodes.

2. Mesh Topology: Decentralized communication; nodes relay data.

5. Variants of IEEE 802.15.4

 A, B – Base versions

 C – China

 D – Japan

 E – Industrial applications

 F – Active RFID

 G – Smart utility systems

6. Device Types

1. Full Function Device (FFD):

o Supports full protocol stack and can communicate with any

device.

o Costly and power-consuming.

2. Reduced Function Device (RFD):

o Communicates only with FFDs.

o Low power and minimal CPU/RAM requirements.

 Figure 7.2 shows FFD/RFD and network types (coordinator, router,

device).

7. Network Types

1. Beacon-Enabled Networks:
 o Periodic beacon transmissions for synchronization and
node association.

o Uses slotted CSMA/CA with a superframe structure.

o PAN coordinator manages the network.

2. Non-Beacon-Enabled Networks:

o Uses unslotted CSMA/CA (contention-based).

o Beacons only used for link layer discovery.

o Requires source/destination IDs for communication.

 Protocol designed for mesh configuration to support

decentralized communication.

8. Frame Types

 Beacon frames: Synchronization and signaling.

 Data frames: Carry the payload for communication.

 Acknowledgment frames (Ack): Confirm message reception.

 MAC & Command frames: Handle association, dissociation, data

requests, beacon requests, coordinator realignment, and orphan
notifications.

 Figure 7.3 illustrates the IEEE 802.15.4 frame types.

9. Advantages

 Low power consumption → longer device lifetime.

 Reliable communication with noise/interference tolerance.

 Supports scalable mesh networks.

 Flexible device types (FFD/RFD) for cost and energy optimization.

10. Disadvantages

 Limited data rate → not suitable for high-bandwidth applications.

 Short transmission range → requires dense network deployment for

large areas.

 Line-of-sight dependency can affect reliability outdoors.

  RFDs are limited in communication scope and cannot form complex
networks independently.

7.3 Zigbee
1. Introduction

o Zigbee is designed for wireless personal area networks

(WPANs).

o Uses IEEE 802.15.4 for the PHY (physical) and MAC

(medium access control) layers.

o Optimized for low-powered, low-cost mesh networks for

monitoring and control applications.

o Typical operational range: 10–100 meters.

o Data rate: 250 kbps, suitable for both periodic and

intermittent full-duplex communication.

2. Frequency Bands

o Operates in 2.4 GHz, 902–928 MHz, and 868 MHz bands.

3. Network Topologies

o Star topology:

 Single coordinator manages all end devices.

 Easy to deploy and maintain.

o Mesh topology:

 Multiple routers extend network coverage.

 Nodes can communicate via adjacent nodes.

  Provides automatic rerouting if some nodes fail.

o Cluster tree topology:

 Coordinator placed at a leaf node, connected to a

parent coordinator.

 Used for hierarchical network management.

4. Device Types

o Coordinator: Root of the network, manages data handling

and storage.

o Router: Connects devices and forwards messages.

o End devices: Limited functionality; communicate only with

parent nodes, enabling low power consumption.

5. Protocol Stack

o Built on IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers, with additional

network and application layers for Zigbee.

o Physical layer: Handles signal transmission/reception,

modulation/demodulation.

 2.4 GHz: 16 channels at 250 kbps

 868.3 MHz: 1 channel at 20 kbps

 902–928 MHz: 10 channels at 40 kbps

o MAC layer: Ensures channel access, reliability, and

synchronization (uses CSMA-CA).

o Network layer: Manages network setup, device

connection/disconnection, configuration, and routing.

o Application Support Sub-Layer (APS):

 Provides data management, device bridging, and

service interfacing (Zigbee Device Objects – ZDO,
Zigbee Application Objects – ZAO).

o Application Framework:

 Supports key-value pairs and generic messages for

application-level communication.

6. Operational Modes

o Non-beacon mode:
  Coordinators and routers continuously monitor data.

 Higher power consumption because devices cannot

sleep.

o Beacon mode:

 Coordinators and routers sleep when idle, waking

periodically to send beacons.

 Reduces duty cycle and extends battery life.

7.5 ISA100.11A
1. Introduction

o ISA100.11A is a low-power wireless communication

standard developed by ISA (International Society of
Automation).

o Primarily designed for industrial plant automation

systems.

o Uses IEEE 802.15.4 as its base protocol.

o Compliant with IoT protocol stack, allowing integration

with wired networks via Ethernet.
 o Supports device-level interoperability and open access
protocols.

2. Security

o Implements 128-bit AES encryption for all communications.

o Security is provided in two layers:

 Transport layer

 Data link layer

3. IP and Networking Support

o Extensive support for IPv6 and UDP, allowing end-to-end

communication.

o Uses TDMA (time-division multiple access) combined with

CSMA-CA for resource sharing.

o Supports star topology and benefits from IPv6 features:

 Increased address size

 Enhanced IPSec-based security

 Multicasting to save bandwidth

 Auto-address configuration

4. Frequency and Interference Handling

o Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, similar to Wi-Fi and

Bluetooth.

o Uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) over

16 channels to avoid interference.

o Implements channel blacklisting to exclude already-used

channels, improving immunity to interference.

5. Network Architecture

o Comprised of field devices and backbone devices:

 Field devices: Non-routing I/O devices, handheld

devices, and routing devices (fixed or mobile). Mobile
devices allow industrial personnel to monitor plant areas
efficiently.

 Backbone devices: Backbone routers, gateways,

system manager, and security manager (all fixed).
 o Supports mesh, star, and star–mesh topologies.

o Devices collectively form the downLink (DL) subnet.

o A Wireless Industrial Sensor Network (WISN) gateway

connects ISA100.11A to the plant network.

6. Protocol Stack

o Comprised of five layers, comparable to the OSI stack:

1. Physical Layer:

 Built on IEEE 802.15.4-2006

 Operates at 2.4 GHz using DSSS (direct

sequence spread spectrum) modulation

2. Data Link Layer:

 Handles packet creation, forwarding, MAC

functions, error detection, and bus
arbitration

 Data Link Control (DLC) layer: Uses graph-

based routing, adaptive channel hopping,
message loss recovery, and clock synchronization

3. Network Layer:

 6LoWPAN-compliant, uses IPv6 addressing for

end-to-end routing

 Performs protocol conversion: IPv6 ↔ 6LoWPAN

4. Transport Layer:

 Supports UDP-based connectionless services

5. Application Layer:

 Primarily specifies system management

applications

7. Advantages of ISA100.11A

o Low power consumption suitable for industrial IoT

applications

o High security due to AES encryption

o Can integrate with wired and wireless networks

 o Supports robust, interference-resistant communication
via FHSS and channel blacklisting

o Flexible topologies (mesh, star, star–mesh) for industrial

network design

o IPv6 support enables scalable addressing and efficient

routing

8. Disadvantages / Limitations

o Relatively complex protocol stack compared to simpler

WPAN standards (like Zigbee).

o Requires specialized backbone devices (system manager,

security manager) for full functionality.

o Higher deployment cost due to industrial-grade devices.

o Setup and maintenance may be more challenging for small-

scale deployments.

o Performance depends on synchronized channel hopping,

which may require careful planning in high-interference
environments.

7.6 WirelessHART
1. Introduction

o WirelessHART is the wireless evolution of the HART

protocol (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer).

o It is a license-free protocol developed for networking

smart field devices in industrial environments.

o Eliminates wires, making device placement more flexible

and cost-effective compared to wired HART.

o Uses IEEE 802.15.4 as its base protocol, similar to Zigbee.

 o Highly secure due to encrypted communication.

2. Network Architecture

o WirelessHART can communicate with a central control

system in two ways:

1. Direct Communication: Devices transmit directly to

the gateway in line-of-sight (LOS) conditions (up to
250 m).

2. Indirect Communication: Devices form a mesh

network, forwarding messages hop-by-hop until they
reach the gateway.

o Includes field devices (handheld, routing, I/O) and access

points / gateways connected to industrial backbone
networks.

o Network manager oversees packet scheduling, collision

avoidance, and channel/frequency assignment.

3. Advantages over Wired HART

o Easier placement of devices in hard-to-reach locations

(e.g., reaction tanks, pipes, separated warehouses).

o Avoids physical wiring costs and maintenance challenges.

o Fully backward compatible with legacy wired HART devices.

o Highly reliable (99.999%) due to tight scheduling of

message transmissions.

4. Frequency and Channel Management

o Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, using only 15 channels

to improve reliability.

o Channel blacklisting: Avoids channels with persistent

interference.

o Channel hopping: Further improves security and reduces

interference.

5. Protocol Stack (Comparison with OSI)

o Physical Layer: IEEE 802.15.4 standard, 2.4 GHz band, high

channel reliability.

o Data Link Layer:

  Uses TDMA (time-division multiple access) for
collision avoidance.

 Implements superframes (10 ms wide time slots) for

deterministic transmission and timing control.

 Includes channel hopping and blacklisting for

enhanced reliability and security.

o Network and Transport Layers:

 Handles routing, network traffic, security, session

initiation/termination.

 Mesh-based routing ensures each node forwards data

from others in range.

 Maintains an updated network graph for efficient

routing.

o Application Layer:

 Facilitates gateway-device communication through

command/response messages.

 Supports backward compatibility with legacy HART

devices.

6. Advantages of WirelessHART

o Flexible deployment in industrial environments.

o High reliability and deterministic communication.

o Secure communication via encryption and channel hopping.

o Backward compatibility with wired HART devices.

o Supports mesh networks, allowing dynamic routing and

resilience against node failures.

7. Disadvantages / Limitations

o Requires a network manager for scheduling and routing,

which adds complexity.

o Mesh networks may increase latency for distant nodes

compared to direct communication.

o Deployment and maintenance require careful planning of

channel hopping and superframe schedules.
 o Limited frequency band (2.4 GHz) may face interference
from other industrial wireless systems (Wi-Fi, Zigbee).

o Primarily designed for industrial environments; less

suitable for general consumer IoT applications.

7.12 Sigfox
1. Introduction

o Sigfox is a low-power, wide-area network (LPWAN)

protocol designed for IoT applications requiring infrequent,
small data transmissions.

o Common use cases include building automation, smart

metering, agriculture, and security.

o Uses ultra-narrowband (UNB) technology with a

bandwidth of 192 kHz, which reduces noise effects and
enhances resilience to interference.

2. Data Rate and Modulation

o Typical data rates: 100–600 bits per second, optimized for

small bursts of data.

o Uses Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) for encoding,

where each message is 100 Hz wide.

3. Frequency Bands
 o Europe: 868–868.2 MHz

o US and other regions: 902–928 MHz

o Ultra-narrowband nature ensures that only a tiny part of

the spectrum is needed, reducing interference.

4. Network Architecture

o Figure 7.19 illustrates the Sigfox architecture: end-points →

base stations → cloud backend.

o Sigfox employs random access and time-frequency-

spatial diversity:

 Random access: Devices transmit messages at

arbitrary frequencies.

 Time-frequency diversity: Each message is sent

twice at different times/frequencies.

 Spatial diversity: Any nearby base station can receive

the message, improving reliability.

o Base stations are complex and handle continuous

monitoring of the spectrum for UNB signals, while devices
remain simple and low-power.

5. Protocol Stack (Comparison with OSI)

o Physical Layer: Handles transmission over UNB and ensures

low-power operation.

o MAC Layer (Medium Access Control): Manages access to

the radio spectrum.

o Frame / Application Layer: Handles message formatting,

small payloads (0–12 bytes), and integration of sensor data,
alerts, GPS, or application data.

o Bi-directional but asymmetric communication: Uplink

(device → base station) is prioritized over downlink.

6. Security Features

o Supports AES encryption.

o Provides authentication, integrity, and anti-replay

protection for messages.

o Ensures resilient and secure communication even with

simple end devices.
 7. Advantages of Sigfox

o Ultra-low power consumption enables multi-year battery

life for IoT devices.

o High resilience due to time, frequency, and spatial

diversity.

o Simplified end devices keep costs low.

o Wide-area coverage suitable for dense deployments.

o Reliable for small, infrequent transmissions like sensor

readings or status updates.

8. Disadvantages / Limitations

o Low data rates (100–600 bps) make it unsuitable for high-

volume or continuous data streams (e.g., video or real-time
telemetry).

o Asynchronous communication limits real-time

responsiveness.

o Limited payload size (12 bytes per message) restricts the

type of data transmitted.

o Not designed for mobility, making it less suitable for

moving devices.

o Best suited for indoor or static deployments; range can be

affected by urban obstructions.

7.13 LoRa
 Definition:

o LoRa (Long Range) is a patented wireless technology

developed by Cycleo, France.

o Designed for M2M (Machine-to-Machine) and IoT connectivity.

o Sub-GHz technology operating in 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868

MHz, and 915 MHz bands.

 Communication Features:

o Bi-directional communication links.

o Spread spectrum with 125 kHz wideband.

o Typical range: 15–20 km.

o Supports millions of devices.

 Applications:

o Electric grid monitoring.

o Smart metering.

o Asset tracking and management.

 Network Architecture (Figure 7.21):

o End-points (nodes): Handle sensing and control tasks.

o Gateways: Forward messages from end nodes to a backhaul

network (IP-based).

o Network server: Schedules acknowledgments, manages

data rates, removes redundancies.

o Application server / Remote computer: Acts as data sink

and controls end nodes.

 Technology Features:

o Spread spectrum technology with high receiver sensitivity via

frequency-modulated chirp coding gains.

o Excellent mobility support.

o Compared with NB-IoT: higher battery life, lower data rates

(27–50 kbps), and longer latency times.

 LoRaWAN:

o Network protocol for routing messages between end nodes

and gateways.

o Broader spectrum than Sigfox (possible interference mitigated

with chirp coding).

o Messages received by all nearby base stations → message

redundancy → enhanced resilience.

o Star topology with four entities:

1. End nodes: Sensing/control.

2. Gateways: Forward messages.

3. Network server: Schedule, manage data rates, remove

redundancies.

4. Remote computer / Application server: Data sink,

control end nodes.
  Security Mechanisms:

o Network key: Security at network level.

o Application key: End-to-end security at application level.

o Device-specific key: Secures communication between nodes

and network.

 Advantages (from content):

1. High receiver sensitivity and long range (15–20 km).

2. Excellent mobility support for asset tracking and

management.

3. Low-cost end nodes and base stations (compared to Sigfox).

4. Resilient network via message redundancy → reliable delivery.

5. High battery life compared to NB-IoT.

 Disadvantages (from content):

1. Low data rates (27–50 kbps).

2. Longer latency times compared to other technologies.

3. Potential interference due to broader spectrum (mitigated by

chirp coding).

4. Message redundancy increases network traffic, which may be

a drawback in dense deployments.

7.14 NB-IoT
 Definition:

o NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT) is a cellular standard initiative by

3GPP.

o Designed to coexist with 2G/3G/4G networks.

o Focuses on low power consumption, high interoperability,

and long battery life.

 Battery Life:

o Supports up to 10 years of battery life for most applications.

 Technical Features:

o Provides improvements in reliability, spectrum efficiency,

and system capacity.
 o Uses OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) modulation → enhances system capacity and
spectrum efficiency.

o Device complexity is high.

o Provides security features: confidentiality, authentication,

integrity.

 Coverage:

o Supports indoor environments and dense urban areas.

o Higher quality of service and reduced latency compared

to LoRa.

 Deployment Suitability:

o Best suited for static deployments (e.g., energy metering,

fixed sensors).

o Not designed for mobility support.

 Frequency Bands:

o Can use 200 kHz GSM bands or resource blocks in LTE

guard bands.

o Ensures coexistence with cellular systems and extended

coverage.

 Data Handling:

o Designed for non-IP based applications with small daily

data transactions (tens to hundreds of bytes per device).

o Faster modulation via OFDM → higher data handling capacity

than Sigfox and LoRa.

 Advantages (from content):

1. Long battery life (up to 10 years).

2. High reliability and spectrum efficiency.

3. Supports coexistence with existing cellular networks.

4. High data handling capacity due to OFDM modulation.

5. Indoor and dense urban coverage.

 Disadvantages (from content):

1. Device complexity is high.

 2. Not efficient for transferring large messages.

3. No mobility support.

7.15 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

 Definition:

o Wi-Fi is a wireless technology for local area networking of

devices and nodes.

o Technically referred to by its standard IEEE 802.11.

 Frequency Bands:

o Operates on 2.4 GHz UHF or 5.8 GHz SHF ISM radio bands.

o Each band is subdivided into multiple channels.

 Communication Technique:

o Multiple devices communicate simultaneously using TDMA

(time-division multiple access).

o CSMA/CA is used for channel access to avoid collisions.

 IEEE 802.11 Versions and Data Rates:

o 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz band, uses OFDM.

o 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz band.

o 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz band, uses OFDM.

o 802.11n: 140 Mbps, 5 GHz band.

 Protocol Stack (Figure 7.25):

 Host layers: Application, Presentation, Session

 Media layers: Transport, Network

 IEEE 802.11: Data Link, Physical

 Network Architecture:

o Uses Wireless LAN (WLAN).

o Devices connect via a wireless access point to the WLAN.

o The WLAN forwards messages between devices and the

Internet.

o Multiple access points and routers can be used to extend

network coverage (Figure 7.26).
7.16 Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)

 Definition:

o Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication

technology operating at low power.
 o Defined by the IEEE 802.15.1 standard.

o Initially developed as a cable replacement technology for

data communication between mobile devices (smartphones,
laptops).

 Frequency Band and Range:

o Operates on the 2.4 GHz ISM band.

o Typical range: approximately 10 meters.

 Communication Method:

o Uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to

reduce interference.

o Data is divided into packets transmitted over 79 designated

channels (1 MHz each).

o Adaptive Frequency Hopping (AFH): Performs 800

hops/sec to avoid interference.

 Modulation and Data Rates:

o Initial versions: Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) –

Basic Rate (BR) – up to 1 Mbps.

o Newer versions:

 4-DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) – 2

Mbps.

 8-DPSK (Differential Phase Shift Keying) – 3 Mbps.

 Network Architecture (Figure 7.27):

o Follows master–slave architecture.

o A piconet is a small network with 1 master and up to 7

slave devices.

o Two piconets can connect via a bridge, forming a scatternet.

o All devices share the master node’s clock.

 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):

o Uses 2 MHz wide bands with 40 channels.

o Features: low energy consumption, low cost, multivendor

interoperability, enhanced range.

 Security:
 o Connections are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping.

o Service-level security restricts device usage and activities.

 Bluetooth Standard Components:

1. Core protocols

2. Cable replacement protocols

3. Telephony control protocols

4. Adopted protocols

 Bluetooth Protocol Stack (Figure 7.28):

 Host layers: Application

 Media layers: LLC, Audio, RFComm, Telephony, Service Discovery

 Lower layers: L2CAP, Baseband, PHY Radio

 Key Protocols:

1. Link Manager Protocol (LMP):

 Manages link establishment, authentication, and

configuration.

 Handles services like name requests, link address

requests, connection authentication, mode negotiation,
and data transfer.

2. Host Controller Interface (HCI):

 Accesses hardware status and control registers.

 Connects controller with LMP and handles device

discovery.

3. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP):

 Multiplexes logical connections between devices.

 Handles data segmentation, flow control, and integrity

checks.

4. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP):

  Discovers services provided by other Bluetooth devices.

5. Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM):

 Cable replacement protocol that generates virtual serial

data streams.

 Supports telephony profiles like AT commands and

OBEX.

6. Telephony Control Protocol–Binary (TCS BIN):

 Bit-oriented protocol controlling call signaling for

voice/data communications.