Perfect 👍 Let’s make detailed exam-ready notes for Class 10 Science,

Chapter 8: How Do Organisms Reproduce?.

I’ll expand everything with full explanations, examples, diagrams-to-
practice, tables, and extra questions (like teachers ask in boards).

Chapter 8: How Do Organisms Reproduce?

1. Reproduction – Introduction

 Definition: Biological process by which living organisms produce

new individuals of their own kind.

 Significance:

o Ensures continuity of species.

o Transfers genetic information (DNA) to offspring.

o Introduces variations (important for evolution and survival).

🔹 DNA copying: During reproduction, DNA makes identical copies. Small

errors (variations) help species adapt.

2. Modes of Reproduction

There are two major modes:

(A) Asexual Reproduction

 Single parent, no gamete fusion.

 Offspring are genetically identical (clones).

 Advantages: Fast, simple, large number of organisms formed

quickly.

 Disadvantages: No genetic variation → less adaptability.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Binary Fission

o Parent divides into two equal parts.

o Example: Amoeba, Paramecium, Leishmania (causes kala-

azar, divides in a definite plane).

2. Multiple Fission
 o Nucleus divides repeatedly, cytoplasm splits later → many
daughter cells.

o Example: Plasmodium (malaria parasite).

3. Budding

o Small bud forms, grows, and detaches.

o Example: Yeast, Hydra.

4. Fragmentation

o Body breaks into fragments, each grows into new organism.

o Example: Spirogyra (algae).

5. Regeneration

o Organism regrows lost parts.

o Example: Planaria, Hydra.

o Note: Complex animals (human, cat, dog) cannot regenerate

whole body, only tissues (like wound healing).

6. Spore Formation

o Organism produces small, light spores inside sporangia.

o Spores disperse by air/water → germinate into new individuals.

o Example: Rhizopus (bread mould).

7. Vegetative Propagation (Plants)

o Reproduction using vegetative parts (root, stem, leaf).

o Natural examples:

 Stem – Potato (eyes), Ginger (rhizome), Onion (bulb)

 Leaf – Bryophyllum (buds on leaf margin)

 Root – Sweet Potato

o Artificial methods (used in agriculture):

 Cutting (Rose), Layering (Jasmine), Grafting (Mango).

o Advantages:

 Quick multiplication.

 Exact copy of parent.

  Helps preserve desirable traits (taste, colour, disease
resistance).

(B) Sexual Reproduction

 Involves fusion of male and female gametes.

 Two parents required.

 Offspring are genetically different → variations.

 Steps in sexual reproduction:

1. Formation of gametes (meiosis).

2. Fusion (fertilisation).

3. Zygote formation.

4. Development into embryo/offspring.

3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

 Flower = Reproductive organ of plants.

Parts of Flower:

 Stamen (male): Anther (pollen grains), Filament.

 Carpel (female): Stigma (receives pollen), Style, Ovary (contains

ovules).

Process:

1. Pollination:

o Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.

o Types:

 Self-pollination – Same flower/plant.

 Cross-pollination – Different plants (agents: wind,

insects, water, animals).

2. Fertilisation:

o Pollen tube grows → reaches ovule → male gamete fuses with

female gamete → zygote formed.

3. Post-fertilisation changes:
 o Ovule → Seed.

o Ovary → Fruit.

o Zygote → Embryo.

4. Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Male Reproductive System

 Testes → Produce sperms + hormone testosterone.

 Scrotum → Keeps testes at ~2°C lower temp (essential for sperm

production).

 Epididymis → Sperm storage.

 Vas deferens → Carries sperm.

 Seminal vesicle + Prostate gland → Secrete seminal fluid

(nutrition + mobility).

 Penis → Transfers sperms to female body.

Female Reproductive System

 Ovaries → Produce ovum (egg) + hormones (oestrogen,

progesterone).

 Oviduct (fallopian tube) → Site of fertilisation.

 Uterus → Foetus develops here.

 Cervix → Narrow opening of uterus.

 Vagina → Birth canal + receives sperms.

5. Fertilisation and Development in Humans

1. Fertilisation:

o Takes place in fallopian tube.

o Sperm (haploid) + Ovum (haploid) → Zygote (diploid).

2. Zygote Development:

o Zygote divides → Embryo → Foetus.

o Placenta: Temporary organ connecting mother & foetus.

 Provides nutrients, oxygen, removes wastes.

 3. Gestation period: ~9 months.

4. Delivery of baby: By muscular contractions.

6. Reproductive Health

Adolescence & Puberty

 Puberty: Period when reproductive system matures.

 Boys → 13–14 yrs, Girls → 10–12 yrs.

 Hormones: Testosterone (male), Oestrogen (female).

Contraceptive Methods

 Natural: Withdrawal, safe period.

 Barrier: Condoms, diaphragms.

 Chemical: Oral pills, spermicides.

 Surgical: Vasectomy (male), Tubectomy (female).

Importance of Contraception:

 Prevents unwanted pregnancy.

 Prevents STDs.

 Controls population.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):

 Bacterial: Syphilis, Gonorrhoea.

 Viral: HIV-AIDS, Hepatitis-B.

 Prevention: Safe sex, condom use, awareness.

7. Differences Table

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

One parent involved Two parents involved

No gametes Gametes formed

Offspring identical (clones) Offspring show variation

Fast, simple Slow, complex

Common in lower organisms (bacteria, Common in higher plants,

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

yeast, algae) animals, humans

8. Important Diagrams

👉 You must practice these for exams:

1. Binary fission in Amoeba.

2. Budding in Yeast.

3. Spore formation in Rhizopus.

4. Longitudinal section of flower.

5. Human male reproductive system.

6. Human female reproductive system.

9. Important Exam Questions

1. Why is variation important in reproduction?

2. Write differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

3. Describe fertilisation and seed formation in plants.

4. Label parts of human reproductive system (diagram-based).

5. What is placenta? Explain its functions.

6. List contraceptive methods and their importance.

7. Why is DNA copying not perfect? How is it useful?

8. Name 2 STDs each caused by bacteria and virus.

✅ Exam Strategy:

 Learn diagrams & labeling (3–5 marks often).

 Reproductive health (2–3 marks short Qs).

 Asexual methods with examples (3 marks).

 Flower fertilisation + human reproduction (5 marks).

Would you like me to also prepare a mind map of this chapter (like a one-
page revision chart) so you can revise it in 5 minutes before exams?

Perfect 👍 Let me give you very detailed notes of Class 10 Science –

Chapter: Heredity (line-by-line explanation style, just like a full revision
guide).

HEREDITY (Class 10 Science, NCERT)

1. Introduction to Heredity and Variation

 Heredity: The process by which traits (characters) are passed from

parents to offspring through genes.

 Variation: The differences in characters among individuals of the

same species.

o Causes of Variation:

1. Errors in DNA copying.

2. Sexual reproduction (gamete fusion causes reshuffling

of genes).

3. Environmental factors (e.g., food, lifestyle).

o Importance of Variation:

 Provides survival advantage in changing environment.

 Example: Bacteria resistant to antibiotics survive, while

others die.

 Genetics: Branch of biology dealing with heredity and variation.

2. Mendel’s Experiments

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884) → Father of Genetics.

 Worked on pea plants (Pisum sativum).

  Selected 7 pairs of contrasting traits (tall/dwarf, round/wrinkled,
yellow/green, etc.).

 Reason for choosing pea plants:

o Short life cycle.

o Large number of seeds.

o Bisexual flowers (self-pollinating).

o Easily distinguishable traits.

(A) Monohybrid Cross (One trait studied)

 Cross: Tall (TT) × Dwarf (tt).

 F1 generation: All Tall (Tt).

 F2 generation (Selfing of F1): TT, Tt, Tt, tt.

o Genotype ratio = 1 : 2 : 1 (TT : Tt : tt).

o Phenotype ratio = 3 : 1 (Tall : Dwarf).

👉 Conclusion:

 Only one trait (tallness) appears in F1 → shows Law of Dominance.

 In F2, both traits reappear in 3:1 ratio → proves Law of

Segregation.

(B) Dihybrid Cross (Two traits studied)

 Cross: Round Yellow (RRYY) × Wrinkled Green (rryy).

 F1 generation: All Round Yellow (RrYy).

 F2 generation: Produced by selfing of F1.

 Traits appear in ratio:

o 9 Round Yellow

o 3 Round Green

o 3 Wrinkled Yellow

o 1 Wrinkled Green

👉 Ratio = 9:3:3:1.
  Shows Law of Independent Assortment: Different traits are
inherited independently.

3. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

1. Law of Dominance

o In a cross between contrasting traits, only one trait (dominant)

is expressed.

o Example: Tall (T) × Dwarf (t) → all tall in F1.

2. Law of Segregation (Purity of Gametes)

o The two alleles of a trait separate at the time of gamete

formation and reunite at fertilisation.

3. Law of Independent Assortment

o Genes of different characters assort (arrange) independently

during gamete formation.

o Example: Seed shape and seed colour.

4. Important Terms

 Gene: Functional unit of DNA carrying information for a trait.

 Alleles: Alternative forms of a gene (T/t, R/r).

 Dominant Trait: Trait expressed in F1 (e.g., tall).

 Recessive Trait: Trait hidden in F1, appears in F2 (e.g., dwarf).

 Homozygous: Same alleles (TT or tt).

 Heterozygous: Different alleles (Tt).

 Phenotype: Observable characteristics (tall, dwarf).

 Genotype: Genetic constitution (TT, Tt, tt).

 Punnett Square: Diagram used to predict genetic crosses.

5. Sex Determination in Humans

 Chromosomes: 46 (23 pairs).

o 22 pairs autosomes + 1 pair sex chromosomes.

  Female = XX, Male = XY.

 Fertilisation:

o Egg (always X).

o Sperm (X or Y).

o X (egg) + X (sperm) → Girl (XX).

o X (egg) + Y (sperm) → Boy (XY).

👉 Thus, father’s sperm decides sex of child, not mother.

6. Acquired vs Inherited Traits

Acquired Traits Inherited Traits

Traits passed from parents to

Traits developed during lifetime
offspring

Example: Muscle building, learning Example: Eye colour, blood

skills group

Not present in DNA Present in DNA

Cannot be inherited Can be inherited

7. Importance of Variation

 Variations help species to adapt and survive.

 Example: Some plants survive drought, some bacteria resist

antibiotics.

 Variations form the basis of evolution.

8. Key Diagrams (for exams)

1. Monohybrid cross (Punnett square).

2. Dihybrid cross (9:3:3:1 ratio).

3. Sex determination in humans (XX & XY).

9. Important NCERT/Board Exam Questions

1. Define heredity.
 2. Differentiate between acquired and inherited traits.

3. Explain Mendel’s monohybrid cross with diagram.

4. What is the phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross? Explain.

5. Explain sex determination in humans.

6. State Mendel’s three laws of inheritance.

7. Why do variations occur in organisms? Give examples.

✅ These notes cover all NCERT theory + exam questions.

Would you like me to now create a mind map of Heredity (one-page

quick visual summary) so you can revise the whole chapter in 5 minutes?

Perfect 👍
I’ll now give you very detailed notes of Chapter – Carbon and Its
Compounds (Class 10 Science), with all concepts explained in depth,
step by step. This will be like full exam-ready notes (ideal for boards and
competitive basics).

Chapter: Carbon and Its Compounds (Detailed Notes)

1. Introduction

 Carbon is one of the most important elements in chemistry and

biology.

 Found in: fuels, food, cloth, medicines, plastics, living organisms.

 Reason for importance:

o Forms a very large number of compounds (more than millions)

→ Organic Chemistry.

o Exists in both free state (diamond, graphite, fullerenes) and

combined state (CO₂, carbonates, hydrocarbons).
2. Bonding in Carbon – The Covalent Bond

 Atomic number: 6 → Electronic configuration: 2, 4.

 Needs 4 electrons to complete octet.

 Options:

o Lose 4 e⁻ → form C⁴⁺ (but very high energy needed).

o Gain 4 e⁻ → form C⁴⁻ (high instability due to 6 protons only).

o Shares 4 e⁻ → covalent bonding → most stable.

Examples of Covalent Compounds

 Methane (CH₄) – C shares 4 e⁻ with 4 H atoms.

 Water (H₂O) – O shares 2 e⁻ with 2 H atoms.

 Oxygen (O₂) – double bond (O=O).

 Nitrogen (N₂) – triple bond (N≡N).

Properties of Covalent Compounds

 Exist as gases/liquids/solids (depending on intermolecular forces).

 Low melting and boiling points (weak intermolecular forces).

 Poor conductors of electricity (no ions, no free electrons).

 Generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents

(benzene, alcohol).

3. Versatile Nature of Carbon

Carbon can form millions of compounds due to:

1. Catenation

o Ability of carbon to form long chains, branched chains, and

rings with itself.

o Example: CH₃–CH₂–CH₂–CH₃ (butane), cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂).

2. Tetravalency

o Carbon has 4 valence electrons → can form 4 covalent bonds.

o Bonds may be single, double, or triple.

 3. Formation of Multiple Bonds

o Single bond (–) : saturated.

o Double bond (=) : unsaturated.

o Triple bond (≡) : unsaturated.

4. Bond Strength

o C–C bond and C–H bond are very strong → stable compounds.

4. Hydrocarbons

Compounds containing only C and H atoms.

Types of Hydrocarbons

1. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

o All C–C bonds are single.

o General formula: CnH₂n+2.

o Example: CH₄ (methane), C₂H₆ (ethane).

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

o Contain double or triple bonds.

o Alkenes (CnH₂n) → ethene (C₂H₄).

o Alkynes (CnH₂n–2) → ethyne (C₂H₂).

3. Aromatic Hydrocarbons

o Contain one or more benzene rings (C₆H₆).

5. Functional Groups

Special atom/group replacing H in hydrocarbons, giving new properties.

Functional
Formula Example Name
Group

Alcohol –OH C₂H₅OH Ethanol

Aldehyde –CHO CH₃CHO Ethanal

CH₃COCH
Ketone –CO– Propanone
₃
Functional
Formula Example Name
Group

Carboxylic Acid –COOH CH₃COOH Ethanoic acid

–X (Cl, Br, Chlorometha

Halogen CH₃Cl
I) ne

6. Homologous Series

 A series of organic compounds with:

1. Same functional group.

2. Same general formula.

3. Successive members differ by –CH₂ (14u).

 Example (Alkanes): CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈ …

Characteristics:

 Similar chemical properties.

 Gradation in physical properties (BP, MP, solubility).

7. Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

Steps:

1. Select longest carbon chain (parent chain).

2. Number the chain from end nearest to functional group.

3. Write prefix (side chains/substituents).

4. Write suffix (functional group).

Examples:

 CH₃–CH₂–OH → Ethanol.

 CH₃–CHO → Ethanal.

 CH₃–COOH → Ethanoic acid.

8. Important Compounds of Carbon

(A) Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

  Colourless liquid, boiling point ~78°C, soluble in water.

 Reactions:

1. With sodium → 2C₂H₅OH + 2Na → 2C₂H₅ONa + H₂↑

2. Dehydration (conc. H₂SO₄) → C₂H₄ + H₂O.

 Uses:

o Solvent for medicines, perfumes.

o Fuel (blended petrol).

o Alcoholic drinks (excess harmful → damages liver/brain).

(B) Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH)

 Weak acid, vinegar contains 5–8%.

 Reactions:

1. With NaOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O (neutralisation).

2. With Na₂CO₃/NaHCO₃ → CO₂ + CH₃COONa + H₂O.

3. With alcohols → Esterification:

CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ (ester) + H₂O.

 Uses:

o Preservative (pickles).

o Used in dyes, plastics.

9. Soaps and Detergents

 Soap = sodium/potassium salts of fatty acids.

Example: C₁₇H₃₅COONa (sodium stearate).

 Detergent = sodium salts of sulphonic acids.

Differences

Soap Detergent

Made from natural oils/fats. Made from petroleum products.

Not effective in hard water (forms

Works in hard and soft water.
scum).

Biodegradable. Some non-biodegradable

Soap Detergent

(pollution).

10. Cleansing Action of Soap – Micelle Formation

 Soap has:

o Hydrophobic tail (repelled by water, attracted to oil/grease).

o Hydrophilic head (attracted to water).

 In water, soap molecules arrange into micelles (spherical clusters).

 Grease trapped inside micelle → washes away with water.

11. Chemical Reactions of Carbon Compounds

1. Combustion

o CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + heat & light.

o Produces a lot of energy.

2. Oxidation

o CH₃–CH₂–OH → CH₃–CHO → CH₃–COOH (with alkaline KMnO₄).

3. Addition Reaction (unsaturated hydrocarbons)

o CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ → CH₃–CH₃ (with Ni/Pt catalyst).

4. Substitution Reaction (saturated hydrocarbons)

o CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl (in sunlight).

12. Important Equations (Summary)

 Combustion: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O.

 Ethanol with Na: 2C₂H₅OH + 2Na → 2C₂H₅ONa + H₂.

 Esterification: CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O.

 Substitution: CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl.

Quick Exam Checklist

✔ Define: covalent bond, catenation, homologous series.
✔ Examples of saturated/unsaturated hydrocarbons.
✔ Functional groups and their properties.
✔ Structures of methane, ethane, ethene, ethyne, benzene.
✔ Soap vs Detergent + Micelle diagram.
✔ Important reactions of ethanol & ethanoic acid.

👉 Do you also want me to make a diagram-based mind map for this

chapter (like flowchart + key points in one page), so you can revise the
whole chapter in 5 minutes before exam?