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1.HISTORY & STRUCTURE OF important to ask “what is globalization?” It is

GLOBALIZATION likewise important to ask “what is/are being
HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION globalized?” depending on what is being globalized
and conclusions change.
Age of Discovery
“Treat each lesson not as an end in itself but as
First Wave of Globalization (19th Century - 1914) windows the broader phenomenon of globalization”

John Maynard Keynes, the economist, observed:

“The inhabitant of London could order by telephone,
sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products STRUCTURE OF GLOBALIZATION
of the whole Earth, in such quantity as he might see Academic literature commonly subdivides
fit, and reasonably expect their early delivery upon globalization into three:
his doorstep.”
1. Economic Globalization: It refers to the
By the end of the 19th century, the Khan Academy widespread international movement of goods,
notes, “most [globalizing and industrialized] capital, services, technology and information
European nations grabbed for a piece of Africa, and Economic globalization primarily compromises
by 1900 the only independent country left on the the globalization of the following:
continent was Ethiopia”.
 Production
In a similarly negative vein, large countries like  Finance: CIMB, Maybank, Bank of China,
India, China, Mexico or Japan, which were Citi, First Commercial Bank
previously powers to reckon with, were not either not  Markets
able or not allowed to adapt to the industrial and  Technology
global trend. Many workers in the industrialized  Organization: IMF, World Bank
nations also did not benefit from globalization, their Philippines
work commoditized by industrial machinery, or their  Institutions
output undercut by foreign imports.  Corporation: P&G, Google
 Labor: The garment industry in
Second and Third Wave of Globalization Bangladesh, for instance, employs an
The end of the World War II marked a new estimated four million people, but the
beginning for the global economy average worker earns less in a month than a
U.S. worker earns in a day.
Under the leadership of a new hegemon, the United
States of America, and aided by the technologies of
the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car and the
plane, global trade started to rise once again.

At first, this happened in two separate tracks, as

the Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of
influence. But as of 1989, when the Iron Curtain fell,
globalization became a truly global phenomenon.

Globalization 4.0

In a world increasingly dominated by two global

powers, the US and China, the new frontier of
globalization is the cyber world. 2. Political Globalization: It refers to the growth
of a worldwide political system both in size and
The digital economy, in its infancy during the third complexity.
wave of globalization, is now becoming a force to
reckon with through e-commerce, digital services, 3D It includes national governments, their
printing. It is further enabled by artificial intelligence, governmental and intergovernmental organizations,
government independent elements of global civil
but threatened by cross-border hacking and
society such as international nongovernmental
cyberattacks.
organizations, social movement organizations
Depending on what is being globalize a different
dynamic or dynamics may emerge. So, while it is
 connections that cut across traditional, political,
economic cultural and geographical boundaries.”

Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching,

and acceleration of these networks.

One of the key aspects of the political For Anthropologist Arjun Appadurai different
globalization is a declining importance of the nation kinds of globalization occur on multiple and
state and the rise of other actors in the political scene. intersecting dimensions of integration that he calls
“scapes”
The creation and existence of the United Nations
has been called one of the classic examples of Appadurai‘s argument is simple: there are multiple
political globalization. globalizations.

- Ethnoscape: global movement of people

- Technoscape: global movement of technology
and the circulation of goods and software
- Idioscape: global flow of ideas
- Financescape: the flow of money across
political borders
- Mediascape: the flow of media across borders
- The political dimension of globalization looks at
political arrangements beyond the nation state The History of Globalization
- Traditional politics harbored an us and them
mentality 1st View 2nd View 3rd View
- Contemporary globalization has led to a It has been It began with Globalization
permeation of those borders evolving since the rise of is on its
the beginning modern era infancy
of time and the
3. Cultural Globalization: Refers to the rapid
development
transmission of ideas, meanings, and values and
of capitalism
cultural products across the world in such a way
as to extend and intensify social relations.
III. SEVEN GLOBAL CONTRADITIONS
1) Global Interests vs. National Interests

II. GLOBALIZATION: AN Countries often face a conflict between doing

INTRODUCTION what’s best for the world (like fighting climate
Globalization first appeared in the 1940s but did change, promoting peace, or trade fairness) and
not gain widespread traction until the 1990s. doing what’s best for their own citizens (protecting
jobs, resources, or industries).
It is sometimes mistaken for an unstoppable
juggernaut “Americanizing” the world. Nations want global cooperation, but at the same
time, they prioritize their own economic growth and
Globalization is a set of social processes by which security. For example, a country may sign a global
the world, previously isolated through physical and environmental treaty but still allow industries that
technological distance becomes increasingly pollute because they provide local jobs.
connected.
Rafael Alunan III (2016) What is in our national
It is manifested by the increase in interaction interest? Because human existence is one of never-
between people around the world that involves ending risk, our national interests and priorities
sharing of ideas, cultures, goods, services, economic, should be risk-based. I would classify those risks as:
political, cultural, ideological, investment,
environmental, and processes aided by information  Those that threaten national survival; e.g.,
technology. all-out war to include nuclear, biological, and
chemical weapons of mass destruction; the
Manfred Steger’s Definition of Globalization: “the
irreversibility of climate change and its global
expansion and intensification of social relations and impact on human and ecological security;
consciousness across world– time and across world– collapse of the global economic and financial
space.” system.
Expansion refers to “both the creation of new  Those that threaten national security but not
social networks and the multiplication of existing national survival; e.g., armed insurgencies,
transnational crimes, and terrorism.
 Those that affect national well-being but not 2) The West vs. The Rest
its overall security and survival; e.g.,
feudalistic practices, government capture, and Western countries (like the US and Europe)
poor civics that perpetuate the cultures of promote their values of democracy, capitalism, and
entitlement, exclusion, impunity, poverty, human rights. Meanwhile, other regions (Asia,
ignorance, corruption, and injustice. Africa, Middle East, Latin America) may have
different traditions, beliefs, and political systems.
It is, therefore, in our national interest to have a
governance system that enables us to elect qualified Western nations push for a global system based on
public servants to apply “whole of government” and their values, but the rest of the world resists, arguing
“whole of nation” solutions to root causes like the that it ignores their own cultures and needs. This
oligarchy, injustice, poverty, ignorance, exclusion, creates tensions in global politics, economics, and
impunity, armed insurgency, and the full spectrum of culture.
crime and corruption. As the term "Western world" does not have a strict
It calls for: international definition.

 functioning parties that select candidates Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians
imbued with a keen sense of nationhood oppose "the West and the Rest" in a categorical
manner.
and public service;
 an honest and reliable electoral counting The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat
system; subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural,
 a responsible system of public information economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed.
and communication that shapes public
thinking toward nation-building and ethical It is a generally accepted western view to
choices. recognize the existence of at least three "major
worlds" (or "cultures", or "civilizations"), broadly in
Good governance and good civics, in furtherance contrast with the Western: the Eastern world, the Arab
of participatory democracy for the common good, and the African worlds, with no clearly specified
will fuel the journey to nationhood; enhance boundaries.
competitiveness; and underscore our reliability as a
responsible member of the family of nations, security In contrast to the Orient (from the Latin word
ally, trade partner, and investment haven. oriens, "rise, East"), or Eastern world, the Western
world is also known as the Occident (from the Latin
We need to develop a strong and diverse economy; word occidens, "sunset, West").
restore and protect ecological balance; and build a
credible defense shield for our people, territory and The West The Rest
resources from any threat, foreign and domestic. World 12% 88%
Population
We must increase our investments in nation Global Severely over- China, Russia
building -- education, moral recovery, skills training, Institutions presented
science and technology, research and development to UN Security 3 are from
reduce poverty, reverse the diaspora, reunite our Council West: France,
families and reenergize the nation. Similarly, we need UK & US
a strong Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard and Land IMF Controls 50%
Forces (including law enforcement) to thwart internal of the votes
and external threats. Keeping our military alliances World Bank Controls 50%
strong and relevant, and developing new ones, are just of the votes.
The head can
as important.
only be an
Global interests are still unclear today. American

Global interests are human common interests

including all individual interests, nations’ and
countries’ interests, and sorts of interest relations.

Everyone is responsible for global interests and

has a voice in global interests, just as people are
responsible for national affairs and have a voice in Samuel P. Huntington's 1996 Clash of Civilizations
national affairs.
Premise: Non–Western nations have three choices
A. Try to isolate themselves and diplomacy). At the same time, globalization has
- This means they could close off from the world, made the world more interconnected and “smaller.”
avoid globalization, and try to protect their
traditions and culture from Western influence. As China expands, it often clashes with other
- Example: North Korea tries to cut itself off from countries that are already competing for the same
Western culture and influence. resources, markets, and influence. The world’s
B. Develop economic and military power and “shrinking” means there’s less space for everyone’s
cooperate with non-Western to battle Western ambitions without conflict.
influence
The global village was shrinking rapidly yet in its
- They could become stronger by building up their
middle one home was getting bigger and bigger.
economies and military power and then forming
alliances with other non-Western nations to That home was China.
balance or resist Western dominance.
- Example: Countries like China, Russia, and
some in the Middle East often cooperate to
counter Western power.
C. Just accept Western culture
- They could simply adopt Western values,
systems, and lifestyle (like democracy,
capitalism, consumerism) to fit into the Western-
dominated world order.
- Example: Some countries in Asia or Africa
follow Western-style governments and
economies to integrate with the global system. What China Is Really Up to in Africa (Shepard, 2019)

Africa has become the fastest urbanizing region of

the world. By 2050, Africa’s 1.1 billion person
3) The World’s Greatest Power vs. The World’s
population is slated to double, with 80% of this
Greatest Emerging Power
growth happening in cities, bringing the continent’s
The United States has been the dominant world urban headcount up to more than 1.3 billion
power, while China is the fast-rising emerging power.
The IMF recently declared Africa the world’s
The US wants to maintain its leadership, but second-fastest growing region, and many are
China’s rapid growth challenges that dominance. predicting that it is well on its way to becoming a $5
Their competition over trade, technology, military trillion economy, as household consumption is
strength, and global influence creates instability in expected to increase at a 3.8% yearly clip to $2.1
international relations. trillion by 2025.

This is not a new contradiction. No great power China is now Africa’s biggest trade partner, with
likes to cede its number one spot. Sino-African trade topping $200 billion per year.

The number one power is America, a Western According to McKinsey, over 10,000 Chinese-
power. The number two rapidly catching up on owned firms are currently operating throughout the
number one is China, an Asian power. African continent, and the value of Chinese business
there since 2005 amounts to more than $2 trillion,
If, and when China becomes the number one with $300 billion in investment currently on the table.
power in the next decade or two it will be the first
time in two centuries that a non–Western Power has Africa has also eclipsed Asia as the largest market
emerged as number one. for China’s overseas construction contracts.

There have already been warning signs:

1) The $4 Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway

ended up costing Ethiopia nearly a quarter
of it’s total 2016 budget,
2) Nigeria had to renegotiate a deal with their
Chinese contractor due to their failure to
4) Expanding China vs. a Shrinking World pay, and
3) Kenya’s 80% Chinese-financed railway
China’s economic and political influence is from Mombasa to Nairobi has already gone
spreading worldwide (through investments, trade,
 four times over budget, costing the country colonization, Western Power trampled over
upwards of 6% of it’s GDP. all their interest the ongoing inability of 1.3
million Muslims to liberate the West Bank
In 2012, the IMF found that China owned 15% of and Gaza from Israel sticks like a very
Africa’s external debt, and hardly three years later painful bone in their troops Additionally, it
roughly two-thirds of all new loans were coming from is increased by the knowledge that during
China. This has some analysts issuing warnings about the last decade Western bombs have fallen
debt traps – with some even going as far as calling only on Muslim populations.
what China is doing a new form colonialism. - The West’s view: After events like 9/11, the
Madrid and London bombings, many
Western people feel that Muslims are
5) Islam vs. The West attacking innocent civilians without reason.
- By contrast, especially since 9/11 the West
Many Islamic countries and communities feel that has developed its own powerful narrative of
Western culture, policies, and military actions victimhood. Many Americans believe that
threaten their religion, identity, and way of life. 9/11 was a completely irrational attack on
Meanwhile, Western nations often view Islam (or innocent civilians by dangerous Islamic
certain groups within it) as a challenge to modern terrorists. The subsequent attacks in Madrid
values or security. on March 11 2004 and in London on July 5
2005 only reinforced the western belief that
Both sides desire peace and cooperation, but
fanatical Islamists want to destroy western
mutual distrust, stereotypes, and conflicting
civilization. The average American and
political/military actions (wars, interventions,
average European believe “We do the
terrorism, migration issues) deepen the divide.
Muslims no harm. Why are they killing us
The most dangerous global contradiction. The especially killing innocent people?”
sources of misunderstanding are many.
Both sides believe they are the “victim” of the
 The first is historical.: For centuries, most other, which makes trust and understanding harder.
Islamic countries were colonized by Western Most Christian societies with the possible
powers (from Morocco to Indonesia). exception of America, are becoming more secular
- Even after colonization ended, many whereas most Islamic societies are becoming more
Muslims felt that Western countries still religious.
controlled or interfered in their politics,
resources, and land (e.g., issues in The declining religiosity in the West and the rising
Palestine). religiosity of the Islamic world
- Because of this long history, there’s a deep
memory of unfair treatment.
 The second source is religious.
6) Global Environment vs. Global Consumer
- The West is becoming more secular (less
focused on religion in daily life). The planet needs environmental protection to
- Meanwhile, many Islamic societies are survive (reduce carbon emissions, protect
becoming more religious and strengthening biodiversity), but people and businesses keep
their identity through faith. consuming more goods and services, which harms the
- This difference in values (secular vs. environment.
religious) creates clashes in lifestyle, laws,
and worldview. Economic growth and consumer demand drive
 The third source of misunderstanding is development, but they directly conflict with
psychological – both sides will have a sense of sustainability. For instance, people want cheap fast
victimhood. fashion or gadgets, but their production destroys
- Muslims’ view: They feel victimized ecosystems.
because their lands were colonized, their
rights ignored, and in recent decades,
Western wars and bombs mostly hit
Muslim countries.
- Muslims feel Victimize because for two As Consumerism Spreads, Earth Suffers, Study
centuries and more until the late 1940s, Says (National Geographic, 2004)
virtually all. Islamic countries stretching
from Morocco in the West to Indonesia in About 1.7 billion people belong to the global
the East were colonized. Even after the "consumer class“. Approximately, 1.7 billion people
worldwide now belong to the "consumer class"— the In the area of human rights, for example has been
group of people characterized by diets of highly completely transformed by the global human rights
processed food, desire for bigger houses, more and organization such as Amnesty International and
bigger cars, higher levels of debt, and lifestyles Human Rights Watch Countries do not have to
devoted to the accumulation of non-essential goods. respond to negative reports by these international
NGOs but they ignore them at their burial
The increase in prosperity is not making humans
happier or healthier, according to several studies.

Increased consumerism evidently comes at a steep IV. UNDERSTANDING FOOD

price. People are incurring debt and working longer SECURITY & GLOBAL NUTRITION
hours to pay for the high-consumption lifestyle, CHALLENGES
consequently spending less time with family, friends,
and community organizations. Food Security: exists when all people, at all times,
have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe,
"Excess consumption can be counterproductive," and nutritious food that meets dietary needs and food
said Gardner. "The irony is that lower levels of preferences for an active and healthy life. (1996
consumption can actually cure some of these World Food Summit)
problems."
Acute food insecurity: Any type that threatens
Global Warming is the most obvious threat, but the people’s lives or livelihoods.
global environment is being threatened by many other
dimensions: rainforests, fishery stocks, water supply, Chronic food insecurity: When a person is unable to
to name just a few. consume enough food over an extended period to
maintain a normal, active and healthy life.
It is ethical to save our planet.
Moderate hunger: hunger experienced “only once”
It is equally ethical to elevate people from poverty. or “a few times” in the last three months

The only ethical solution is to spread the burden Severe hunger: refers to hunger experienced “often”
equitably throughout the world, with the rich or “always” in the last three months.
population bearing the most sacrifice.
Four Dimensions of Food Security:

I. Availability: supply side, production, stock,

7) Government vs. Nongovernmental trade.
Organizations II. Access: economic and physical ability to
obtain food
Governments represent national interests and often III. Utilization: is commonly understood as the
focus on stability, control, and economic growth. way the body makes the most of various
NGOs, on the other hand, promote humanitarian aid, nutrients in the food. Safe, nutritious,
human rights, and environmental protection. properly absorbed
IV. Stability: reliable access & supply over
Governments sometimes see NGOs as interfering
time
with their authority, while NGOs see governments as
not doing enough for justice, equality, or Global Trends in Food Security (SOFI 2024)
sustainability. This creates tension in global problem-
solving. - Hunger still affects over 673 million people
worldwide in 2024.
In theory, international life is driven by national - Africa and Western Asia saw worsening
governments. In practice, nongovernmental hunger despite global improvements
organization and forces, in various stages and forms - Slight decline: 8.2% hungry in 2024 (down
are also driving international life across the world. from 8.5% in 2023).
- New SOFI methodology identifies
- United Nation
financing gaps to achieve SDG 2.
- Principal of non–interference in internal
- Climate shocks, conflict, and economic
affairs sacrosanct
instability remain key drivers.
- “Nothing contained in the present charter
- Children and women are most affected by
shall authorize the United Nations to
malnutrition.
intervene in matters which are essentially
within the domestic jurisdiction of any Why are women & children most at risk?
state”
 In countries facing conflict and hunger, women
often eat last and least – sacrificing for their families.
But empowering women and girls can end hunger for
good, and transform whole communities in the
process.

- of the 343 million people who are

extremely hungry in the world right now,
nearly 60% are women and girls.
- In nearly 2/3 of countries, women are more
likely than men to report food insecurity Key Drivers of Food Insecurity
- 1 in 3: the proportion of women with
anemia, a diet-related iron deficiency that  Conflict: wars disrupt farming, trade such
can cause organ damage if left untreated as Ukraine war → grain shortage.
 Climate shocks: droughts, floods destroy
Women are fighting for: crops.
 Economic instability: inflation makes food
I. Food Security: Of the 343 million people
unaffordable.
who are extremely hungry in the world
 Displacement: refugees/migrants lose
right now, nearly 60% are women and girls.
access to food systems.
Each cause of unequal treatment reinforces
the others, trapping women in a cycle of
disadvantage, poverty and hunger. But
good nutrition can keep women healthy and
help girls stay in school, increasing their
economic opportunities.
II. Fair Pay: Women do 2.6 times more unpaid Financing Shortfalls
care and domestic work than men do and
earn 23% less for paid work. But when they - WFP needed $21.1 billion in 2025,
do earn an income, they reinvest 90% of received only $1.57 billion.
their resources back into their families and - Severe aid cuts = closing of nutrition
communities - jumpstarting a cycle of centers, reduced food rations.
change that can last generations. - Rich donor countries prioritizing domestic
III. Equal Rights: More than half of the world's issues.
agricultural workers are women, yet less - Financing gap = hunger persists longer, at
than one in five landowners worldwide are higher costs later.
women. Often, they're not allowed to own
Why Investment Matters
the land they work on or make financial
decisions. - Investment now prevents higher
humanitarian costs later.
- Strengthens local agriculture: empowering
farmers = resilience.
- Builds preparedness for food crises.

From 2022 to 2024, around 37.8 million Filipinos

(32.9%) faced moderate or severe food insecurity—
still the highest rate in Southeast Asia, though
improved from 44.7% during the pandemic.

About 44% of the population (51 million people)

couldn't afford a healthy diet in 2024, a slight

improvement from 45.4% in 2023, with the daily cost

of a healthy diet estimated at $4.39 (PPP)

Hunger Incidence (SWS Data)

Q1 2024 (March): 14.2% of families experienced

involuntary hunger—the highest since 2021. Metro
Manila topped the regions at 19%, while Mindanao
saw a decrease to 8.7%
 By Q4 2024, the “Walang Gutom Program” saw Introduced in 1980, drawn across the world map to
hunger among beneficiaries drop from 48.7% to separate rich from poor countries.
44.6%, while hunger among non-beneficiaries rose
by 6.1 points. In vulnerable BARMM-Plus - North of the line: industrialized, wealthier
provinces, hunger among beneficiaries fell by 7.3 nations.
points - South of the line: developing, poorer
nations

Through criticized as simplistic, it remains a

V. THE GLOBAL NORTH-SOUTH symbolic representation of global inequality.
DIVIDE
- Still used to frame debates about
The Global North–South divide is a socio- development, trade, and global justice
economic and political framework.
Economic Disparities
It categorizes countries into two groups:
industrialized, wealthy 'North' and less-developed North: Higher GDP per capita, advanced
'South'. infrastructure, diversified economies. North
dominates global trade and finance systems
This framework highlights global inequalities in
prosperity, technology, and international influence. It South: Lower incomes, dependency on agriculture or
remains a powerful tool for analyzing global relations raw material exports. South is often vulnerable to
today. global market fluctuations and external debt crises.

Historical Origins

Colonialism and imperialism created deep

structural inequalities.

- European powers exploited colonies in

Africa, Asia, and Latin America for raw
materials and labor.

Post-independence, many Southern countries

inherited weak economies and institutions.

Cold War terminology: 'First World' Vs 'Third Political and Institutional Power
World' evolved into 'North' and 'South'.
North: Global North dominates institutions like the
- Brandt Report (1980) formalized the UN Security Council, IMF, World Bank and WTO.
concept through the Brandt Line Policies of these institutions often reflect Northern
priorities and interests.
Global North: US, Canada, Europe, Japan, South
Korea, Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand, Israel South: Global South has limited representation and
bargaining power in decision-making. The imbalance
Global South: Latin America, Africa, Middle East fuels calls for reform in global governance.
(excluding Israel), much of Asia, most of Oceania

Technological and Educational Gaps

North: North invests heavily in innovation, research

and technology.

South: South faces digital divides, lack of access to

modern technology, and weaker education systems.

Human Capital Flight

Brain Drain: Brain drain is a phenomenon that has

been affecting developing countries for decades. It
refers to the emigration of highly skilled and educated
The Brandt Line individuals from their home country to seek better
opportunities abroad.
Brain Gain: Brain gain refers to the migration of
skilled and educated individuals from developed
countries to developing countries, where they can
contribute their skills and knowledge to help these
countries grow.

Bridging the Divide

United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) aim to reduce global inequality. South–South
A new approach cooperation: partnerships between developing
countries for shared growth. Global climate finance
and technology transfer as key demands from the
South. Movements for fair trade, debt relief, and
inclusive global governance continue to grow

VI. THE INTERSTATE SYSTEM AND

THE GLOBAL CONFLICTS

Global Interstate System: It is the whole system of

Health and Environmental Inequalities
human interaction.
North: Better health infrastructure and access to
- The modern world is structured politically as an
medicine
interstate system - a system of competing and
South: Higher disease prevalence, malnutrition, and allying state.
weaker healthcare systems. - The global ordering of sovereign states that
interact through diplomacy, trade, law, war, and
The Brandt Line today international organizations.

- 2020 reassessment: income inequality Composition of the Interstate System

between North and South persists. Global
South’s economic share grew, especially - 193 UN member states + observer states.
due to China and emerging economies. - Partially recognized states and dependent
- Yet, OECD countries collectively remain territories.
economically stronger. South shows - OntheWorldMap lists 266 countries &
political coherence at the UN, often voting territories.
as a bloc.
- Conclusion: Divide endures – economic
shifts but persistent structural imbalance. Observer states: not full-fledged members of the
United Nations but are granted observer status to
Development and Dependency participate in the activities of the organization.
- Many Global South economies depend on
Partially recognized states: sovereign state that has
exporting raw materials and importing finished
declared independence and functions with a
goods.
government and administration, but its sovereignty is
- This dependency reinforces underdevelopment
not accepted by every other country or the entire
and trade imbalance.
international community.
- Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)
imposed by IMF/WB deepened poverty in many Criteria for Statehood
cases. Global South's debt burden limits
investment in health, education, and  Montevideo Convention
infrastructure. - a permanent population;
- a defined territory;
 - government; and Key Causes of Global Conflicts
- capacity to enter into relations with the
other states - Struggle for power & sovereignty
 Westphalian Sovereignty: principle of non- - Resources & economic inequality
interference - Ethnic & religious divisions
- Geopolitical rivalries
Recognition & Legitimacy - Climate change & displacement

Recognition enables access to international Sovereign risk refers to the political, financial, and
organizations, banking and aid, diplomatic immunity, economic risk that a state poses to creditors,
and legal standing. investors, and other states — including default risk,
political instability, expropriation, and conflict.
Types of interstate interactions Tracked by CFR’s Sovereign Risk Tracker.
 Diplomacy and treaties. - Conflict increases sovereign risk: destroys
 Trade relations and sanctions. revenue, increases debt.
 Alliances and collective security. - High sovereign risk can increase likelihood
 Military conflict and war. of unrest and conflict.
 Dispute settlement (ICJ). - Two-way relationship between conflict and
economic instability.
Global Trends affecting the Interstate System
Ukraine-Russia (As of Mid-2023)
 Climate change and resource stress driving
cross-border tensions and migration. - Civilian Casualties: over 40,000 due to
 Transnational threats: pandemics, cyberattacks, fighting and air strikes.
organized crime. - Internal Displacement: 3.7 million people
 Rise of non-state actors: NGOs, corporations, displaced within Ukraine.
militias - Refugees Abroad: 6.9 million Ukrainians
 Growing interconnectedness how supply chains have fled the country.
and FDI link domestic governance to global - Humanitarian Need: 12.7 million people in
politics Ukraine require humanitarian assistance

United Nations (U.N): Sudan Civil War (2023-Present) “The Forgotten

Crisis”
- Roles: conflict mediation, peacekeeping,
humanitarian response. - Displacement & Refugees: nearly 3 million
- Limits: sovereignty constraints, veto Sudanese have fled to neighboring
powers, enforcement limits. countries (Chad, Ethiopia, South Sudan)
with many more internally displaced
IMF, WB & WTO: - Internal Displacement: over 12 million
forcibly displaced since conflict escalated.
- Roles: economic stabilization, debt - Humanitarian Need: over 30 million people
restructuring need humanitarian assistance.
- Food Insecurity / Famine Risk:
deteriorating food security risks triggering
“the world’s largest hunger crisis.

Contemporary Conflict Hotspots Humanitarian Consequences of Global Conflicts

- Conflicts shape the interstate system and - Refugees & Displacement

perceptions of sovereignty. - Food Insecurity & Famine
- CFR Global Conflict Tracker highlights - Access to Aid & Healthcare
active conflicts worldwide. Ukraine,
Global Responses to Conflicts
Yemen, Syria, South China Sea tensions.
- UN Peacekeeping and Resolutions
Types of Conflicts
- NATO and defense alliances
- Territorial Disputes - ASEAN and regional efforts
- Civil Wars - Humanitarian aid organizations
- Interstate Wars
Implications for the Interstate System
- Terrorism & Insurgencies
- Ethnic & Religious Conflicts - Challenge to sovereignty
 - Rise of multipolar world order
- Global cooperation versus national interest
- The question on “Can the interstate system
prevent war?”

Global conflicts shape the interstate system today.

Understanding root causes helps build solutions.
Cooperation is key to peace and sustainable
development.