MagneticPropertiesof RocksandMinerals

Christopher
P. Hunt, BruceM. Moskowitz,SubirK. Banerjee

1. INTRODUCTION composition-dependent magneticparameters

of a varietyof
iron-bearingminerals.
This is an updatedcollationof magneticparameters of
rocksand mineralsfor geologists,geochemists, andgeo- 2. MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
physicists.Sincethepublicationof thepreviouseditionof
Handbookof PhysicalConstants[74], two othercollations Magnetic susceptibilityis a measureof the magnetic
have appeared[16, 18]. In addition,selectedmagnetic responseof a materialto an externalmagneticfield. The
parametershavealsobeenassembled[19, 22, 38, 41, 88]. volumesusceptibilityk, measuredin dimensionlessunits,is
Ratherthanproducea fully comprehensive collection,we definedastheratioof thematerialmagnetizationJ (perunit
have aimed for high-precisiondata obtainedfrom well- volume)to the weak externalmagneticfield H:
characterizedsamples.
Bothtablesandfigureshavebeenusedforpresenting the J=kH. (1)
data,andbest-fitequations havebeenprovidedfor someof
thedisplayed datasothatinterpolations
canbemadeeasily. Alternatively,the specificor masssusceptibility
Z, mea-
In an attemptto discourage the useof the outdatedcgs sured
inunitsofrn3kg4,
isdefined
astheratioofthematerial
system,all valuesarein theSI system(seeMoskowitz,this magnetizationJ (per unit mass)to the weak externalmag-
volume). Referenceshave been cited for the sourcesused netic field H:
here. However,a morecomprehensive bibliography has
alsobeenprovidedfromwhichinformationcanbeextracted (2)
for sampleswhichhavenot beenincluded.
The single-crystal
constantsandtheirvariationwith tem- All materialshave magneticsusceptibility,which can be
peratureandcomposition are for useby rockmagnetists. eitherpositive(paramagnetic) ornegative(diamagnetic).In
Paleomagnetistsandmagneticanomalymodelers havebeen materialswhichdisplayhysteresis, the initial slopeof the
providedwith themagneticproperties of rocksandpoly- hysteresis loopis takento be theinitial or low-fieldsuscep-
crystalline
mineralsamples.Lastly,wehavemadeaneffort tibility Zo. Magnetic susceptibilityvaluesare useful in
to addressthe needsof environmental magnetism, a new geophysicalexploration,and in models of both crustal
groupof researchers who requirethe valuesof size- and magnetizationand magneticanomalies.Table 1 liststhe
(initial) susceptibilityfor commonrocksandminerals.
C. P. Hunt, B. M. Moskowitz,and S. K. Banerjee,University In ferro-, ferri-, or cantedantiferromagnetic materials,
of Minnesota,Institutefor Rock Magnetismand Department hysteresis andthepresenceof magneticdomainscausethe
of GeologyandGeophysics, 310 PillsburyDrive SE,Minneap-
olis, MN 55455
initial susceptibilityto becomegrain-sizedependent.This
dependence for magnetiteis plottedin Figure1.
Rock Physicsand PhaseRelations Initial magneticsusceptibility is temperature dependent.
A Handbookof PhysicalConstants The susceptibilityof paramagneticmaterialsis inversely
AGU Reference Shelf 3 proportionalto absolutetemperature, butthesusceptibility
Copyright1995 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion. 189
190 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

TABLE 1. MagneticSusceptibilities
of SelectedRocksand Minerals
Rock/Mineral Chemical Formula Density Volume k MassZ References
(103kg m-3) (104 SI) (104 m3kg
-•)
IgneousRocks
andesite 2.61 170,000 6,500 114
basalt 2.99 250-180,000 8.4-6,100 95, 107, 114, 115
diabase 2.91 1,000-160,000 35-5,600 114
diorite 2.85 630-130,000 22-4,400 114, 115
gabbro 3.03 1,000-90,000 26-3,000 95, 107, 114, 115
granite 2.64 0-50,000 0-1,900 95, 107, 114, 115
peridotite 3.15 96,000-200,000 3,000-6,200 114
porphyry 2.74 250-210,000 9.2-7,700 114
pyroxenite 3.17 130,000 4,200 114
rhyolite 2.52 250-38,000 10-1,500 114
igneousrocks 2.69 2,700-270,000 100-10,000 22
averageacidicigneousrocks 2.61 38-82,000 1.4-3,100 114
averagebasicigneousrocks 2.79 550-120,000 20-4,400 114

SedimentaryRocks
clay 1.70 170-250 10-15 114
coal 1.35 25 1.9 114
dolomite 2.30 -10-940 -1-41 95, 114
limestone 2.11 2-25,000 0.1-1,200 22, 107, 114, 115
red sediments 2.24 10-100 0.5-5 22
sandstone 2.24 0-20,900 0-931 107, 114, 115
shale 2.10 63-18,600 3-886 114
averagesedimentary
rocks 2.19 0-50,000 0-2,000 114

MetamorphicRocks
amphibolite 2.96 750 25 114, 115
gneiss 2.80 0-25,000 0-900 107, 114, 115
granulite 2.63 3,000-30,000 100-1,000 126
phyllite 2.74 1,600 60 114
quar•ite 2.60 4,400 170 114
schist 2.64 26-3,000 1-110 114, 115
serpentine 2.78 3,100-18,000 110-630 114
slate 2.79 0-38,000 0-1,400 107, 114, 115
averagemetamorphicrocks 2.76 0-73,000 0-2,600 114

Non-Iron-Bearing
Minerals
graphite C 2.16 -80--200 -3.7--9.3 16, 95, 107, 114
calcite CaCOa 2.83 -7.5--39 -0.3--1.4 16, 18, 22, 114
anhydrite CaSO4 2.98 -14--60 -0.5--2.0 16, 18, 95
gypsum CaSO•.2H•O 2.34 -13--29 -0.5--1.3 16, 107, 114
ice H•O 0.92 -9 -1 107
orthoclase KA1Si30s 2.57 -13--17 -0.49--0.67 16
magnesite MgCO3 3.21 - 15 -0.48 22
forsterite Mg2SiO4 3.20 -12 -0.39 16
serpentinite Mg3Si2Os(OH),
• 2.55 3,100-75,000 120-2,900 107
halite NaC1 2.17 - 10-- 16 -0.48--0.75 16, 18, 107, 114
galena PbS 7.50 -33 -0.44 16
quarlz SiO• 2.65 -13--17 -0.5--0.6 16, 18, 22, 73, 95
cassiterite Sn02 6.99 1,100 16 114
celestite SrSO• 3.96 -16--18 -0.40--0.450 16
sphalerite ZnS 4.00 -31-750 -0.77-19 16, 114
 HUNT ET AL. 191

TABLE 1. (continued)

Iron-BearingMinerals
garnets A3B2(SiOn)3 3.90 2,700 69 16
illite clay w/1.4% FeO, 4.7% Fe203 2.75 410 15 18, 22
montmorillonite clay w/2.8% FeO, 3.0% F%O3 2.50 330-350 13-14 18, 22
biotites K(Mg,Fe)3(A1Si3Oa0)(O•2 3.00 1,500-2,900 52-98 16, 18, 22
siderite FeCO3 3.96 1,300-11,000 32-270 16, 18, 47, 73, 114
chromite FeCqOn 4.80 3,000-120,000 63-2,500 114
orthoferrosilite FeSiO3 4.00 3,700 92 18
orthopyroxenes(Fe,Mg)SiO3 3.59 1,500-1,800 43-50 16, 18, 22
fayalite FenSiOn 4.39 5,500 130 18
olivines (Fe,Mg)•SiOn 4.32 1,600 36 16
jacobsite MnFe2On 4.99 25,000 500 18
fmnklinites (Zn,Fe,Mn)(Fe,Mn)•On 5.21 450,000 8,700 114

Iron Sulfides
chalcopyrite CuFeS2 4.20 23-400 0.55-10 16, 114
arsenopyrite FeAsS 6.05 3,000 50 114
troilite FeS 4.83 610-1,700 13-36 16, 47, 73
pyrrhotites Fe•_xS 4.62 460-1,400,000 10-30,000 18, 20, 22, 29, 95,
114, 115, 127
pyrrhotite Fe•S•2 4.62 1,200 25 16
pyrrhotite Fe•0S• 4.62 1,700 38 16
pyrrhotite Fe9S•0 4.62 170,000 3,800 16
pyrrhotite Fe, Ss 4.62 3,200,000 69,000 16
pyrite FeS2 5.02 35-5,000 1-100 16, 47, 95, 114

Iron-Titanium Oxides
hematite o•-FenO3 5.26 500-40,000 10-760 16, 18, 22, 47, 70,
73, 114, 115
maghemite •/-FenO3 4.90 2,000,000-2,500,000 40,000-50,000 1, 115
ilmenite FeTiO3 4.72 2,200-3,800,000 46-80,000 16, 18, 22, 47,
106, 114, 115
magnetite FeaOn 5.18 1,000,000-5,700,000 20,000-110,000 16, 18, 22, 55, 61,
62, 75, 114, 115
titanomagnetite Fe3_xTi•On,
x=0.60 4.98 130,000-620,000 2,500-12,000 18, 44, 62
titanomaghemite
Feo_•>
•Ti,•Elm_•>O
n, 4.99 2,800,000 57,000 22
R=8/[8+z(l+x)]
ulvOspinel FenTiOn 4.78 4,800 100 22

OtherIron-BearingMinerals
iron Fe 7.87 3,900,000 50,000 22
goethite o•-FeOOH 4.27 1,100-12,000 26-280 16, 32, 47, 115
lepidocrocite ht-FeOOH 4.18 1,700-2,900 40-70 16, 47, 115
limonite FeOOH.nH20 4.20 2,800-3,100 66-74 16, 115
Notes: All susceptibilities
weremeasured in weakfieldsat roomtemperature andat oneatmosphere pressure.Literature
valuesfor susceptibilitieswere convertedto $I unitswhen necessary, and from volumeto massnormalizationusing
acceptedvaluesfor materialdensities[22, 73, 114]. Susceptibility
valueshavebeenroundedto the numberof significant
figuresgiven in the original. Most valuescome from other tabulations,to which the reader shouldrefer for more
information.Valuesfor the moreimportantmagneticminerals(magnetite,titanomagnetite, hematite,pyrrhotite,and
goethite)werecollatedfromrecentoriginalsources.
192 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

ß •
ß
ß Ozdenur
and
ß Dunlop
Banerice
(1986)
(1982) 0 HartsIra
(1982a)
o Dayetal.(1977)
Zfd
= Z470,z
- Z47oou
•470Hz
x100%, (3)
• •o '* ß Maher
(1988) o Dankers
(1978)
where,•470Hz and ,•4700Hzare the susceptibility
of a sample
measured at 470 Hz andthatmeasured at 4700 Hi, respec-
tively. In magneticmaterials,there is a small window of
• 6
grainsizes(near20 nmin magnetite) whichwill bemagneti-
cally unstable(superparamagnetic) at 470 Hi, but stable
(single-domain) at4700Hi. Overrelativelylong"observa-
tion times" at 470 Hi, sucha grain will appearto be
magnetically unstable,andwill contributesignificantlyto
0 i [ I i i thetotalsusceptibility of thesample.Butovershortertimes
0.01 0.1 I 10 100
at 4700 Hi, thesamegrainwill appearto be stable,andwill
Grain diameter (/.tm) contribute littletothetotalsusceptibility.A samplecontain-
Fig. 1. The grain-sizedependence of initial magneticsus- inga significant fractionof suchgrainswill thushavea high
ceptibility(Zo)in magnetite.Experimentaldatafromcrushed value(upto about12%)of Zfd-Thisparameter canbeused
grains(opensymbols)andgrowncrystals(closedsymbols onlyqualitatively todetectthepresence of ultrafinegrainsof
andcross).Solidlinesarepower-lawfits for grown(GR) magneticmaterialsuchasmagnetiteor maghemite,which
andcrushed(CR) samples. areoftenfoundin soils[e.g., 115].
Thesusceptibility of a samplecanalsovarywithdirection,
dependingon thefabricof theconstituentminerals.Anisot-
ropy of magneticsusceptibility(AMS) can be used to
of diamagneticmaterialshasnotemperature dependence. In determinesedimentaryflow directions,or metamorphic
magneticmaterials,thereisoftena"Hopkinsonpeak"[e.g., deformationparameters[e.g.,57].
88] where susceptibilityincreasesjust below the Curie
temperaturebefore dropping to relatively small values. 3. GRAIN-SIZE DEPENDENCE
Examplesare shownin Figure 2. The peak occursat high
temperaturesbecausebothnumberandmobilityof domain Variousmagneticpropertiesshowa stronggrain-size
walls in MD grainsincrease,and thermalactivationof SD dependence [e.g.,41, 111]. This dependence occursnot
momentsincreases,all leadingto an increasein responseto because of anyintrinsiccontrolof grainsizeon magnetiza-
an external field.
tion, but becausetheseparameters are influencedby the
Hydrostaticpressuredoes not affect the magnitudeof magneticdomainstateof the samples,which in turn is a
magneticsusceptibility in experiments of up to 2 kbar [e.g.,
76]. However,uniaxialstresswill changethesusceptibility
bothin amountanddirection,dependenton theorientation 3 ß ' ' i • , i i
ß 00•ftm
magne.te.
Dunlop
11974J
of theappliedstressrelativetothemagneticfield. Whenthe 0.1
ftrn
magne.te,
Durdop
119741 ß
appliedstressisparalleltothemagneticfield thesusceptibil- 02-0.3
lun
.....lar
ma•net
....Dunlop(1974,/
serpent
.....dperido
.....Btna
and
Henrv
(1990
) /
ity decreases;when the stressand field are perpendicular, upper-crustal
rneta-andestte.
Sruve
andFountatn
•1988
) /
deep
......l•......Will
.... al(1985/86)
thereisanincreasein magneticsusceptibility[e.g.,82]. The
œrarud
....Kelso(1993)
amountof changeis reversible,and is dependentboth on
compositionandonmagneticgrainsize. Changesin suscep-
tibility can be +40% at 2 kbar of differential stress[76, 82].
However, uniaxial stressesgreaterthan 1-2 kbar are un-
likely to be sustainedin matehals residing at elevated
temperatures in thelower crust.
Initial susceptibilityis dependentuponthe frequencyat
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
whichit ismeasured.Thisisbecausesusceptibility depends
Temperature (øC)
on the magneticdomain stateof a sample,which in turn
dependson the length of time over which the sampleis Fig.2. Temperature dependenceofinitialmagnetic
suscep-
measuredor observed. The parameterknown as the "fre- tibility(Zo)for crustalrocksandsynthetic fine-grained
quencydependence of susceptibility"Zfdis usuallydefined magnetite.Notethepresence ofonlyaveryweakHopkinson
by peak in the rock data.
 HUNT ET AL. 193

function of grain size. Domain states change from TABLE 2. Reference Guide for Grain-Size
superparamagnetic (SPM), to singledomain (SD), and fi- Dependence
of MagneticParameters
nally to multidomain(MD) with increasinggrain size. Mineral References
Domain-transition grainsizesdependoncomposition, tem-
perature, andmicrostructure. Magneticgranulometry isany hematite 25, 30
magneticmethodfor determiningeitherthephysicalor the titanomagnetite 28, 87, 100
titanohematite 125
magnetic grainsizeof a magneticmaterial.Magneticgrain
pyrrhotite 20, 29, 31, 35, 77, 127
sizerefersto the magneticdomainstateandbehaviorin a goethite 32, 33, 34
magneticparticle,regardless of thephysicaldimensions of maghemite 25
theparticle.Here,weareinterested in magnetic
granulometry
of naturalmagneticgrains,suchasmagnetite (Fe3On),hema-
tite (c•-Fe203),maghemite(T-F%O•),and the varioustita-
nium-substitutedcompositionsof these three minerals
(titanomagnetite,titanohematite,andtitanomaghemite). The ture, or equivalently,as a functionof thermal activation
compositionof the variousFe-Ti oxides and their solid- energy/stability.Examplesincludethe frequencydepen-
solutionseriesare shownin Figure 3. Thesemineralsare denceof susceptibilitydiscussed above,and low-tempera-
found in soils,in oceanand lake sediments,and in sedimen- ture thermaldemagnetizationof remanence. In the latter
tary,igneous,andmetamorphicrocks. case,remanenceacquiredat low temperatureis lost upon
Bothhysteresisandremanence arestronglydependent on warming,becauseof the thermalunblockingof magnetic
grain size. Magnetichysteresisresultswhen a magnetic grains,which is dependenton grain size.
mineralis cycledbetweenlargepositiveandnegativemag- Magnetitehasbeenone of the mostextensivelystudied
neticfield valuesat roomtemperature.Remanenceproper- magneticminerals,andtheimportantgrain-size-dependent
tiesaremeasured in a field-freespaceaftera magneticfield hysteresisparametersfor this mineral are presentedhere
hasbeenappliedto a sample. [e.g.,40]. Referencesfor grain-sizedependent propertiesin
A secondcategoryof magneticgranulometryis basedon othermineralssystemsarelistedin Table2. The grain-size
measuring
magneticparameters
asa functionof tempera- dependenceof coerciveforce (H•), remanencecoercivity
(H,•), andreducedsaturation remanence(J•/J•)for magne-
titefromvariousstudies areplottedinFigures4-6. Thedata,
TiO2 (i.e., Fe•*) compiledfrom theliterature,arefrom magnetitesthathave
ruffle, brookire
beensynthesizedby severaldifferentmethods:(1) grown
crystals(GR) producedeitherby hydrothermalrecrystalli-
zationat high temperatures, or by aqueousprecipitationat
low temperatures[e.g., 3, 40, 55, 75]; (2) crushedgrains
(CR) producedby crushingandsievinglargecrystals[e.g.,
«FeT 25, 28,50];and(3) glass-ceramic samples (GL) produced by
quenchingiron-richglassesfromhightemperature andthen
«FeTiO3/ • annealingat temperatures below 1000øC[ 128]. As shown
in Figures4-6, variationsin a particularmagneticparam-
eter,suchasH G,for thesamenominalgrainsizearesensitive
«=tio /6.0 o.: 0.2-,,,
ulv6spinel/•'",,• "• - • •-• x • •pseudobrookite to the methodof samplepreparation[e.g.,40], and hence
showthe importanceof microstructure and crystaldefects
onmagneticbehavior.The uniquestress-strain historiesthat
x
differentsampleshaveexperienced resultindifferentcrystal
defectpopulations.Forexample,hydrothermally recrystal-
lizedsamplesarethoughtto havelow residualstrainsanda
(i.e., Fe2*) magnetite (i.e., Fe3*) lowdefectdensity[55]. In contrast,crushedgrainsthathave
hematite, been milled have probablyundergoneextensivebrittle/
maghemite
plasticdeformationat low temperatures, resultingbothin a
Fig.3. Ternarydiagramof theiron-titanium oxidesandtheir rapidincreasein thenumberof defectsandin a highdefect
solid-solutionseries;x is the compositionparameter(Ti density.The grain-sizedependence andmagnitudeof coer-
content)in thetitanomagnetite series,andz is theoxidation civity,remanence, andsusceptibility areimportant,andare
parameter fortitanomaghemites. Figureredrawnfrom[41]. usedextensivelyby environmentalmagnetists[e.g., 115].
194 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

100 .
Worm and Mar•t (1987)
0 Hartstra ( 1982 )
Day.
et
al.
(1977) _
C] Day et al. (1977)

10

ß Dunlop(1986)
Hartsira(1982) 0.01 ß
ß
Dunlop(1986)
ArgyleandDunlop(19901
_a -

CR

ß Argyleand Dunlop(19901 ß Levi and Merrtll (1978)

ß Arntn et al. (1987)
x Schmidbauerand $chemberat1987)
ß Levt and Merrtll (19781
.- Heider et al. (1987)

0.001 '
-Heideretal.,1987,
....... •+.i -
i ........ i ........ i ..... i x.

0.01 0.1 1 10 1 O0 O0 0.01 0.1 I 10 100 1000

Grain diameter ½wm) Grain diameter (wm)

Fig. 4. Grain-sizedependenceof coercivity(H•) in magne- Fig.6. Grain-sizedependence ofreduced

saturationmagne-
tite.Experimental datafromcrushedgrains(opensymbols), tization(J•/J,)inmagnetite.
Experimentaldatafromcrushed
growncrystals(closedsymbols andcross),andglassceram- grains (opensymbols),growncrystals(closed symbolsand
ics (hatchedsymbol). Solid linesare power-lawfits for cross),andglassceramics(hatched symbol).Solidlinesare
grown(GR), crushed(CR), andglassceramic(GL) samples. power-lawfitsfor grown,(GR), crushed (CR), andglass
ceramic(GL) samples.

4. INTRINSIC PARAMETERS Thecomposition

dependence
bothof J, (measured
at room
temperature)
andof Tc for titanomagnetites,
titanomaghe-
4.1. SaturationMagnetizationand Curie Temperature mites,andtitanohematites is shownin Figures7-9; Table3
Curietemperatures (Tc)andsaturation
magnetization listsTc andJ, datafor otherminerals.Thethermaldepen-
areintrinsicproperties
whichdependonchemicalcomposi- denceofJ, formagnetite andforhematite is givenin Table
tion and crystalstructure.Saturationmagnetizationis a 4 andin Figure 10, respectively.
functionof temperatureanddisappears
attheCurietempera-
ture. Rapid thermomagnetic measurement of Tc aids in
determining thecompositionof magneticmineralphases.

400
60-
ß Dunlop(1986)
5O[- ß Argyleand Dunlop(1990)
ß Levt and Merrtll (1978j
4o
40•- ß Maher
(1988)
ß rn ¸
2o
3O[-
,.

'ß•
ß G
R o
o.o 0.2 o.4 0.6 o.8 1.o
-200

Fe•O, x-parameter We
2TiO,
0 Hartsira (1982)
10•ß E Day et al. (1977)
o Danl•er$ (1978) Fig. 7. Variationof room-temperature saturation magneti-
zation(J,)andCurietemperature (Tc)withcomposition (x-
0.01 •.1 1 10 100 parameter)in the titanomagnefite (Fe3_xTi•On) solid-solu-
Grain diameter (,t•n) tionseries.Endmembers aremagnetite (x= 0) andulvOspinel
Fig. 5. Grain-sizedependence
ofremanencecoercivity (x = 1). Curietemperature
datadenoted byopencircles,and
in magnetite.Experimentaldatafromcrushedgrains(open J, databysolidsquares. Solidlinesare(1) linearfit totheJ,
symbols)and growncrystals(closedsymbolsandcross). data[2, 59, 85, 100, 124]; (2) bestfit second-order
polyno-
Solidlinesarepower-lawfits for grown(GR) andcrushed mialtoTcdata[2,85,94, 100,103,120].Best-fitequations
(CR) samples. aregivenin theFigure.
 HUNT ET AL. 195

betweenthe c-axis and the (0001) plane,and a triaxial

600 constantthat determinesthe in-planeanisotropyperpen-
dicular to the c-axis.
Theanisotropy constants
dependonmineralcomposition,
crystalstructure,
temperature,
andpressure,
butareindepen-
dentof grainsize. Room-temperature
valuesof anisotropy
• 300 constantsfor titanomagnetites, maghemite,hematite,and
pyrrhotitearelistedin Table5. Thevaluesof theanisotropy
constantslisted in Table 5 were determinedfor single
•r • • :- x = 0.5 (Ntshuant and Ko•, 19•
crystalseitherby high-fieldtorquemeasurements [e.g.,45,
46,113], orby analysisof magnetizationcurves[e.g.,5, 58].
Thetemperature dependence bothof thebasalplaneanisot-
z-parameter
ropyconstant forhematite,aswellasof K• formagnetite, are
illustratedin Figures10 and 11,respectively.
Fig. 8. V•a•on of Cu•e tem•rat•e (Tc) with deg•e of
oxi•on (z-p•ame•0 for •e timnomaghemi• se•es 4.3. Low-TemperatureMagnetic Transitions
•e•r•Ti•a•O n,R = 8/[8+z(1+x)], where• deno•sa Certainmagneticpropertiesmay changegreatlyas a
lance vacancy). Solid lines •e line• •st-•m for each functionof temperaturebelow300K. Suchlow-tempera-
•fies. turetransitions
maybe diagnosticof mineralcomposition
(seeTable 5). In magnetite,thereis a crystallographic
Verweyphasetransitionnear118K [e.g.,11]. Alsoassoci-
atedwiththistransition
isa magnetic
isotropicpoint
Long-rangemagneticorderingbelowtheCurietempera- thetemperature whereK• becomes zeroasit changessign,
ture is achieved by the mechanismof exchange or andthecharacteristic
easydirections
ofmagnetizationchange
superexchange interactions,
andis usuallydescribed by an theirorientation
(seeFigure11). A remanence giveneither
exchangeconstant,A [e.g., 24], which is an important
parameter in micromagneticdomaintheory.Fromananaly-
sis of a synthesisof publisheddata on inelasticneutron 4O
scatteringin magnetite[54], thebest-fitfourth-orderpoly- 600
nomialfor the temperature dependence of A(T), usefulfor
reproducing theexperimentalresults,is givenby
•• 400T =680(1-1.3y)
•..•• ß
, :_ _ .• •
A(T) = (-1.344+ 2.339x 10-2T- 0.706x 10-nT2
+8.578x10-ST3-3.868x10-XXT)x10 -•xjm-x, (4)

whereT is theabsolutetemperature.

4.2. MagnetocrystallineAnisotropy ...... • I , , , I ' ' * 0

Magnetocrystallineanisotropy andmagnetostriction arise 0% 0•z 0.• 0.6 0.s •.0
fromspin-orbitcouplingof ionicmagneticmoments, result- FezO• )'-pa•amete• FeTiO•
ing in crystallographically
controlledeasyandharddirec- Fig. 9. V•a•on of r•m-tem•rat•e •t•a•on magne•-
tionsof magnetization
[e.g.,11,24]. Themagnetocrystalline
za•on (JO•d C•e tem•ra•e (T• wi• com•si•on •-
anisotmpy energy(E•) for a cubiccrystalis givenby
p•eter) • •e •ohema• •e•T•O•) •lid-solu•on
•es. •d mem• • hema• • = 0) •d ilmenite
• = 1). C•e •m•ra•e • isdenot• byo•n sym•ls,
andJ,• by solidsym•. Sold s•ight l•e isa line• fit
whereK• andK2areempiricalanisotropy constants,anda' s to•e Tc• [56,108, 120]. Best-fitequa•onisgivenin •e
arethedirectioncosinesof magnetization
withrespecttothe Fig•e. J, ••om [125,69]. •e complexv••on of J,
principalcubicaxes. wi• com•si•on is due• a changein magneticorde•ng
For a hexagonalcrystal,anisotropycanbe expressed in from c•ted •tife•omagne•sm to fe•imagne•sm at
termsof a uniaxialconstantthatdeterminesthe anisotropy y • 0.45.
196 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

TABLE 3. MagneticProperties
of SelectedMinerals
Mineral Composition Magnetic
Order Tc' (øC) j,b (Am2kg-•)
Oxides
cobaltferrite CoFe204 ferrimagnetic 520 80
copperferrite CuFe204 ferrimagnetic 455 25
hematite ct-Fe203 cantedantiferromagnetic 675 0.4
maghemite ht-Fe203 ferrimagnetic • 70-80
ilmenite FeTiO3 antiferromagnetic -233
magnetite FelOn ferrimagnetic 575-585 90-92
ulv6spinel Fe2TiOn antiferromagnetic - 153
magnesioferrite MgFeaOn ferrimagnetic 440 21
jacobsite MnFeaOn ferrimagnetic -300 77
trevorite NiFe2On ferdmagnetic 585 51
Sulfides
troilite FeS antiferromagnetic 305
pyrrhotite FeqS8 ferrimagnetic 320 20
greigite Fe3Sn ferrimagnetic -333 -25

Oxyhydroxides
goethite a-FeOOH antiferromagnetic/weak
ferromagnetic -120 <1
femxyhyte •5-FeOOH ferdmagnetic -180 <10
lepidocrocite ht-FeOOH antiferromagnetic(?) -196

Metals and Alloys

cobalt Co ferromagnetic 1131 161
wairauite CoFe ferromagnetic 986 235
iron Fe ferromagnetic 770 218
nickel Ni ferromagnetic 358 55
awaruite Ni•Fe ferromagnetic 620 120
'Tc = Curietemperature
(ferromagnetic
materials)or N6el temperature
(ferdmagnetic
andantiferromagnetic
materials).
bJ, = Saturation
magnetization
atroomtemperature.
References: [24, 78, 115].

aboveorbelowthistransition will bereduceduponpassing definedas the strain dependenceof magnetocrystalline

throughTv. In hematite,the transitionis calledthe Morin anisotropy. The linearsaturation magnetostriction constant
transitionand occursnear263 K in bulk samples,but is •, is thefractionalchangein lengthZXg/g of a materialwhen
suppressed in fine grainslessthan20 nmbecauseof internal it is magnetizedfroma demagnetized stateto saturation.It
dilatationalstrain[84]. A newly discoveredtransitionin canbepositive(elongation)or negative(contraction), andit
pyrrhotiteoccursnear34 K [35, 101], but its microscopic is usuallyanisotropic in singlecrystals.The microscopic
causeis unknown. All thesetransitiontemperatures are originof magnetostriction is the samespin-orbitcoupling
known to be sensitiveto impurities,grain size, and non- thatproduces magnetocrystalline anisotropy[e.g.,24].
stoichiometry; in somecases,the transitioncanbe totally In cubic crystals,the linear magnetostriction •, is de-
suppressed [e.g.,6, 11, 111]. Thus,low-temperaturerema- scribedby thetwo-constant expression [e.g.,24],
nence transitions for mineral identification should be used
with caution. Dependingon the type of experiment,a
distinction
ismadein Table5 betweenisotropic
points(Tv),
whereK• becomeszero, and remanencetransitions(TR), (6)
wherea changein remanenceor susceptibility
occurs.
where•, is thestrainmeasured in thedirectiondefinedby
4.4. Magnetostriction directioncosines ]•i,andai arethedirectioncosinesof the
Magnetostriction
is thechangein crystaldimensions
that magnetization. Both]3•and a• (i = 1, 2, 3) aremeasured
accompaniesthe processof magnetization,and can be relativeto theprincipalcubicaxes. The magnetostriction
 HUNT ET AL. 197

TABLE 4. TemperatureDependenceof
SaturationMagnetizationin Magnetite
K 20
0.4
Absolute Saturation
Temperature Magnetization
T (r) J,' (Am2kg
-•)
0.3 20.4 98.80
77.1 98.37
o.• •o 284.6 92.14
325.2 90.36
372.7 87.49
415.9 84.82
452.3 82.15
o
498.9 78.40
- 1oo o 1oo 200 3 oo 400 500 600 700
539.5 74.84
Temperature (øC) 586.1 69.99
631.0 64.85
Fig. 10. Variationof saturation
magnetization
(J,)andbasal 678.4 58.82
planeanisotropy constant(K) withtemperature
fora natural 728.4 51.51
crystalof hematitefromAscension.Notetheeffectof the 761.5 45.18
Morin transitionbelow-10øC. Figuremodifiedafter [ 11, 790.3 37.86
45]. 830.1 22.54

98.86Am2kg
4 at absolute
zero.Reference:
[96].
constants
alongthe<100> and<111> crystaldirectionsare
&0oand •,•, respectively.A relatedparameteris the
polycrystalline
magnetostriction
constant
•,,, givenby of a samplein theabsenceof an externalmagneticfield, and
thusoccursonly in materialswhich exhibit hysteresis.A
remanencecan be a volumemagnetization(magneticmo-
mentpervolume,measured
in unitsof Am-•),or a mass
magnetization(magneticmomentper mass,measuredin
Like themagnetocrystalline
anisotropyconstants,
magne- unitsof Am2kg-•).
tostrictionconstantsvary as a functionof composition, Thermal remanentmagnetization(TRM) is the rema-
crystalstructure,temperature,and pressure. Room-tem- nenceacquiredby a samplewhenit coolsto roomtempera-
perature valuesof single-crystal
andpolycrystal
magnetos- turestartingat or aboveits Curie/N6elpointin thepresence
trictionconstants for titanomagnetites,
maghemite,hema- of an externalmagneticfield (usually50-100 }•T). TRM is
tite,andpyrrhotiteare listedin Table5. The temperature often used as a laboratorymodel for the acquisitionof
dependence of themagnetostriction
constants
formagnetite
is shownin Figure 12. -16
' I ß I ' I '

Magnetit
ß Fletcherand O'Reilly (1974)
4.5. PressureDependence -12
ß Syono(1965)
Only a weak hydrostaticpressuredependence
of mag- ß Kakol and Honig (1989)

netocrystalline
anisotropy,
magnetostriction,
andCurietem- -8
peraturehasbeendetectedin magnetite.Theresultsof one
study[83] werethatK• andK2decreasewithpressure at the -4
rate of -0.05%/MPa (-5%/kbar), whereas&0oand &n
increaseat therateof +0.15 %/MPa (15%/kbar). The results
of another[ 105] werethattheCurietemperature for magne-
titeandforvarioustitanomagnetites increases
withpressure
at approximately0.02 K/MPa (2 K•bar). I
100
• I
200
, I
300
• I
400
• I
500
• I
600
, I
700
•
800

Temperature (K)
5. REMANENCES
Fig. 11. Variationof first-ordermagnetocrystalline
anisot-
Remanentmagnetization
isthepermanent
magnetization ropyconstant(K•) of magnetitewith absolutetemperature.
198 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

TABLE 5. Room-Temperature
Valuesof Magnetocrystalline
andMagnetostriction
Constants
Mineral K• K2 • •00 •, Tv' TR" References
(x104Jm-3) (x104Jm-3) (x104) (x10-•) (x104) (K) (K)
Titanomagnetites
Fe304 [TM0] -1.23b 0.44 78 -20 39 120-130 118 5, 6, 47, 60, 113
TM04 - 1.94 • -0.18 • 87 -6 50 112 113
TM05 -1.5 0.2 95* 60
TM10 -2.50 0.48 96 4 59.2 92 113
TM18 -1.92 109 47 84.2 113
TM19 -2.04 1.0 <50 60
TM28 -1.92 -0.3 <50 60
TM31 -1.81 104 67 89.2 113
TM36 -1.6 0.3 68* 60
TM40 148.2 146.5 147.5 68
TM40 (PC)a 122.7 80
TM41 -1.4 0.3 125 60
TM52 133 117
TM55 =0 1.4 60
TM56 -0.70 228 113
TM59 211 117
TM60 79.3 137.9 102.7 68
TM60 (PC)a 111.3 80
TM60 243 117
TM65 262 117
TM68 0.18 --300 113
TM70 9.3 65.4 31.7 68

Other Minerals
T-Fe304 -0.46 (SCF)d -(5-10) (PC)d None None 12
•-Fe203 7-188x10-5c •-8 263 45, 79
Fe7Ss 11.8f 32.2f <10g 35 14, 31, 110
Notes: An asteriskindicatesan extrapolated
value.
'Tvis temperaturewhereK• = 0, TRis temperature
wherea changein remanence
or susceptibility
occurs.
hAverage valuefromlistedreferences.
•Datafrom [60], whichhavethefollowingerrorlimits: K• +5%, K2+20%.
dpc= polycrystalline
sample,
SCF= singlecrystal
thinfilm.
tin-planeanisotropyconstant.
fK3andK4anisotropy
constants.
gBasedon domain observations[110].

remanence by magneticmineralsin newly-formedigneous (peakfieldabout100mT) witha superimposed steadyfield

rockswhich cool throughtheir Curie temperatures in the (usually50-100 pT). ARM hasbeenusedasananalogfor
Earth'sfield. ExperimentalstudieshavebeenmadeonTRM TRM, but avoidsthe possibilityof alteringthe magn'ctic
asa functionof grainsizefor magnetite(seeFigure13),and mineralsat hightemperature.It is alsocommonlyusedin
asa functionof composition in titanomagnetites [e.g.,26, environmental magnetismfor magneticgranulometry [e.g.,
87, 93,100, 119],in titanomaghemites [e.g.,86, 89], andin 115]. Theresultsof severalstudiesof thegrain-sizedepen-
titanohematites [e.g., 69, 120]. ReverseTRM has been denceof ARM in magnetiteareplottedin Figure15.
foundforcertaincompositions of titanohematite (seeFigure Isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) isa laboratory
14). remanence acquiredbya sampleatafterexposure toa steady
Anhystereticremanentmagnetization (ARM) isa labora- externalmagneticfield at a given temperature.If the
tory remanenceacquiredby a sampleat roomtemperature externalfield is strongenoughto saturatethe magnetic
duringtreatmentin an decaying,alternating magneticfield mineralsin thesample(typically 1T), thentheremanence is
 HUNT ET AL. 199

I ' I ' I ' i ' i [ , i ' • ' 0.2

©,e•• Magnetite
_• ,• ß •ß ß B•ckfordet al. (1955) • 0.0
ß,,•/ •'111 • ß Klapel
a• Shtve
(1974)
• '• a Klerketal. (19•)
•• o Moskowitz
•1993)
-0.4

ß•. -o.6
_ • .

ß• -o.s'

100 200 360 400 500 660 700 800 900 12 ,

O. 0•.4 16 ,
O. I
0.8 1.0
Temperature (K) Fe.,
O3 y-parameter FeTiO•

Fig. 12. Variationof magnetostriction

constants(•, Fig. 14. Variation
of weak-field
TRM intensity
withcom-
and •,) for magnetitewith absolutetemperature.Single position(y-parameter)
fortitanohematites
(Fez_yTiyOz).
Note
crystaldatafrom[13,67,68];polycrystalline
datafrom[80]. thereverseTRM acquiredwhentitaniumcontentis in the
•, calculated
fromsinglecrystaldataormeasured directlyby range0.55to0.75. TRM datahavebeennormalized toan
[80]. induction
fieldof to0.1mT(80Am-•, or 10e).

called a saturation isothermal remanent magnetization field at the time of formation or alteration. NRM is the most
(SIRM). SIRM isessentiallythesameasJ, froma hysteresis variableof magneticparametersbecauseit depends
notonly
loop. Variationsin IRM and SIRM are relatedto the on mineralogyand grainsize,but also on the mode of
coercivityspectrumof a sample,andcanthusbe usedfor remanenceacquisition,and on thermalandmagnetichis-
magfietic mineralogy determinations
inenvironmental mag- tory. Nevertheless,
NRM is a criticalparameterin crustal
netismstudies[e.g.,65]. magnetizationstudiesthattrytomodelthesourcesofmarine
Naturalremanentmagnetization (NRM) istheremanence andcontinentalmagneticanomalies.A summary of several
in a rockbeforeanydemagnetization treatmentin thelabo- modelsof oceaniccrustmagnetizationisshowninFigure16
ratory.Itis usuallyacquired
paralleltotheEarth'smagnetic [116].

20

10-
ß ß Magnetite

ßAA
•ß ß•)z•mir
ß
ß
0
o
andBaneryee
(1982)
Dunlop(1972)
Maher (1988)
Hartstra (1982b)
Dankers (1978)

0.5
03

0.2

o.
0.05 0.1

0.02]-
0.01 •
0.01 0.1 I 10 100
0.01 0.1 1 1 100
Grain diameter (gin)
Grain diameter (#m)
Fig. 15. Grain-sizedependenceof weak-field
anhysteretic
Fig. 13. Grain-sizedependence of weak-fieldthermalrema- remanentmagnetization (ARM) intensityfor magnetite.
nentmagnetization(TRM) intensityfor magnetite.Data Experimental datafromcrushed grains(opensymbols)and
fromcrushed grains(> 1 pm), growncrystals(< 1 pm), and growncrystals(closedsymbols).ARM datahavebeen
magnetiteof otheroriginscompiledby [41]. Seeoriginal normalized to an induction
fieldof 0.1 mT (80 Am-•, or
paperfor references.Figuremodifiedafter[41]. 10e).
200 MAGNETIC: PROPERTIES

CXNOE& STERNET KENTET•J_ WDO(1977) DUNLOP & LUYENOYK 8WIFTANO HAYUNG& AJ:IKA/4- T--•
KENT0e?e) I:•OT & DAY(1882) JOHNeON HAI:I:I• HAMEO OOP
0ee2) 0eM) (tees) (tell)
2A

2B

3A

38
ß

/
I

cnAlal
NRM(An1•)7500 13015 6063 6500 48OO • 5660 • ?T•O 875O

AVERAGE
CRUSTAL
TOTALNATURAL
REMANENT
MAGNETIZATION
- 7060A

Fig.16.Models
ofnatural
remanent
magnetization
(NRM)intheoceanic
crust.Seismic
layers
areidentified
atfight.NRM valueswithinlayersareinAm-•. Valuesatthebottom
ofcolumns arethecrustal
totalNRM in
amperes,neglecting
values frombelowtheMoho.Seeoriginal paperforreferences.
Figurefrom[116].

TABLE 6. Koenigsberger
Ratiosfor SelectedRocks TABLE 7. Reference Guide for Other Remanences
Rocks Koenigsberger References Remanence References
Ratio,
Q, Chemical
(CRM) 17, 48, 64, 91, 92, 97, 112
Sedimentary
Rocks Depositional
(DRM) 4,7,8,71
marine
sediments 5 18 Viscous
(VRM) 10, 39, 43, 49
red sediments 1.6-6 18
siltstone 0.02-2 18
silty shale 5 18
avgsedimentary
rocks 0.02-10 18, 107
Therelativeimportance of NRM compared withinduced
Igneous Rocks magnetizationis characterized
by theKoenigsberger
ratio
granite 0.1-28 18, 107 Q•, a dimensionless
quantitygivenby
granodiorite 0.1-0.2 18, 107
dolerite 2-3.5 18, 107 Q, = NRM / kHc, (8)
diabase 0.2-4 18, 107
gabbro 1-9.5 18, 107 whereNRM isthemagnitude of thenaturalremanentmag-
oceanicgabbro 0.1-58.4 66 netization
(perunitvolume),k isthevolumesusceptibility,
intrusions 0.1-20 18, 107 andHcis themagnitude of theEarth'smagneticfieldat the
volcanics 30-50 18 siteunder
consideration
(H,= 24-48Am-•,B,=/h•, = 30-
subaerial
basalt 1-116 18, 98 601aT).Valuesof Qaforseveralrocktypesarecollected
in
oceanicbasalt 1-160 18, 107 Table 6.
seamounts 8-57 107
Othertypesof remanence--including chemical (CRM),
avg igneousrocks 1-40 18 depositional(DRM), viscous(VRM)--have alsobeenthe
subjectof extensive
study,butarenotincluded here.The
MetamorphicRocks
interested
readercanreferto thepaperscitedin Table7 for
granulites 0.003-50 63, 116, 122 further discussion.
Others Acknowledgements.
Thanksaredueto PaulKelsoforhelpful
input. This is contributionnumber9301 of the Institutefor Rock
magnetite
ore 1-94 18, 107
manganeseore 1-5 107 Magnetism(IRM). The IRM is fundedby the W. M. Keck
lunar rocks 0.001-1 18 Foundation,
theNational
Science
Foundation,
andtheUniversity
of Minnesota.
 HUNT ET AL. 201

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