Chapter 3

The Group

The slides for the entire course are based on:

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
Foundations of Group Behavior
Defining and Classifying Groups

Group(s)
Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives.

Formal Group Informal Group

A designated work A group that is neither
group defined by the formally structured now
organization’s structure. organizationally determined;
appears in response to the
need for social contact.
Defining and Classifying Groups (cont’d)

Command Group Task Group

A group composed of Those working together
the individuals who to complete a job or task.
report directly to a
given manager.

Interest Group Friendship Group

Those working together Those brought together
to attain a specific because they share one
objective with which or more common
each is concerned. characteristics.
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Why People Join Groups

• Security
• Status
• Self-esteem
• Affiliation
• Power
• Goal Achievement

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The Five-Stage Model of Group Development

Forming Stage
The first stage in group development, characterized
by much uncertainty.

Storming Stage
The second stage in group development,
characterized by intragroup conflict.

Norming Stage
The third stage in group development, characterized
by close relationships and cohesiveness.

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…Group Development (cont’d)

Performing Stage
The fourth stage in group development, when the
group is fully functional.

Adjourning Stage
The final stage in group development for temporary
groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up
activities rather than performance.

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Group Tasks
 Decision-making
– Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about
complex tasks.
– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and
facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.
– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in order
for the group to perform well.

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Group Decision Making
 Strengths  Weaknesses
– More complete – More time
information consuming (slower)
– Increased diversity – Increased pressure
of views to conform
– Higher quality of – Domination by one
decisions (more or a few members
accuracy) – Ambiguous
– Increased responsibility
acceptance of
solutions

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Group Decision Making (cont’d)

Groupthink
Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus
overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course
of action.

Groupshift
A change in decision risk between the group’s
decision and the individual decision that member
within the group would make; can be either toward
conservatism or greater risk.

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Symptoms Of The Groupthink Phenomenon

 Group members rationalize any resistance to the

assumptions they have made.
 Members apply direct pressures on those who
express doubts about shared views or who question
the alternative favored by the majority.
 Members who have doubts or differing points of view
keep silent about misgivings.
 There appears to be an illusion of unanimity.

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Group Decision-Making Techniques
Interacting Groups
Typical groups, in which the members interact with
each other face-to-face.

Nominal Group Technique

A group decision-making method in which individual
members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments
in a systematic but independent fashion.

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Group Decision-Making Techniques

Brainstorming
An idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives, while
withholding any criticism of those alternatives.

Electronic Meeting
A meeting in which members interact on computers,
allowing for anonymity of comments and
aggregation of votes.

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Understanding Work Teams

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Why Have Teams Become So Popular

 Teams typically outperform individuals.

 Teams use employee talents better.
 Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes
in the environment.
 Teams facilitate employee involvement.
 Teams are an effective way to democratize and
organization and increase motivation.

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Team Versus Group: What’s the Difference

Work Group
A group that interacts primarily to share information
and to make decisions to help each group member
perform within his or her area of responsibility.

Work Team
A group whose individual efforts result in a
performance that is greater than the sum of the
individual inputs.

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Types of Teams

Problem-Solving Teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same
department who meet for a few hours each week to
discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the
work environment.

Self-Managed Work Teams

Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the
responsibilities of their former supervisors.

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Types of Teams (cont’d)

Cross-Functional Teams
Employees from about the same hierarchical level,
but from different work areas, who come together to
accomplish a task.

• Task forces

• Committees

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Types of Teams (cont’d)

Virtual Teams
Teams that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a
common goal.

Team Characteristics
1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues
2. A limited social context
3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints

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Creating Effective Teams: Diversity

Group Demography
The degree to which members of a group share a
common demographic attribute, such as age, sex,
race, educational level, or length of service in the
organization, and the impact of this attribute on
turnover.

Cohorts
Individuals who, as part of a group, hold a common
attribute.

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Turning Individuals Into Team Players
 The Challenges
– Overcoming individual resistance to team membership.
– Countering the influence of individualistic cultures.
– Introducing teams in an organization that has
historically valued individual achievement.
 Shaping Team Players
– Selecting employees who can fulfill their team roles.
– Training employees to become team players.
– Reworking the reward system to encourage
cooperative efforts while continuing to recognize
individual contributions.
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Communication

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Functions of Communication

Communication
The transference and the understanding of meaning.

Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make
decisions.

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Elements of the Communication Process
 The sender
 Encoding
 The message
 The channel
 Decoding
 The receiver
 Noise
 Feedback

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The Communication Process
 Channel
– The medium selected by the sender through which the
message travels to the receiver.
 Types of Channels
– Formal Channels
• Are established by the organization and transmit
messages that are related to the professional activities of
members.
– Informal Channels
• Used to transmit personal or social messages in the
organization. These informal channels are spontaneous
and emerge as a response to individual choices.

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Interpersonal Communication
 Oral Communication
– Advantages: Speed and feedback.
– Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.
 Written Communication
– Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.
– Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.
 Nonverbal Communication
– Advantages: Supports other communications and
provides observable expression of emotions and
feelings.
– Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or
gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of
message.
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Grapevine
 Grapevine Characteristics
– Informal, not controlled by management.
– Perceived by most employees as being more
believable and reliable than formal communications.
– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who
use it.
– Results from:
• Desire for information about important situations
• Ambiguous conditions
• Conditions that cause anxiety

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Computer-Aided Communication
 E-mail
– Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost
for distribution.
– Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional
content, cold and impersonal.
 Instant messaging
– Advantage: “real time” e-mail transmitted straight to
the receiver’s desktop.
– Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting.

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Computer-Aided Communication (cont’d)
 Intranet
– A private organization-wide information network.
 Extranet
– An information network connecting employees with
external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.
 Videoconferencing
– An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits
face-to-face virtual meetings via video links.

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Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering
A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will
be seen more favorably by the receiver.

Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience, and
attitudes.

Information Overload
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an
individual’s processing capacity.
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Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)

Emotions
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received
will influence how the message is interpreted.

Language
Words have different meanings to different people.

Communication Apprehension
Undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication, written communication, or both.

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Communication Barriers Between Men and
Women

 Men talk to:  Women talk to:

– Emphasize status, – Establish connection
power, and and intimacy.
independence. – Criticize men for not
– Complain that women listening.
talk on and on. – Speak of problems to
– Offer solutions. promote closeness.
– To boast about their – Express regret and
accomplishments. restore balance to a
conversation.

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“Politically Correct” Communication
 Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult
individuals.
 In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be
sensitive to how words might offend others.
– Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly
– Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired,
and senior.
 Removing certain words from the vocabulary
makes it harder to communicate accurately.
– Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.
– Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,
postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and
people of gender.
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Cross-Cultural Communication
 Cultural Barriers  Cultural Guide
– Semantics – Assume differences until
similarity is proven.
– Word connotations
– Emphasize description
– Tone differences
rather than interpretation
– Differences among or evaluation.
perceptions
– Practice empathy.
– Treat your interpretations
as a working hypothesis.

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Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle
situational cues to communication.

Low-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey
meaning in communication.

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Basic Approaches to
Leadership

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What Is Leadership?

Leadership
The ability to influence a group toward the
achievement of goals.

Management
Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank
to obtain compliance from organizational members.

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Trait Theories

Traits Theories of Leadership Traits:

Traits:
Leadership
• Ambition and energy
Theories that consider
personality, social, • The desire to lead
physical, or intellectual • Honest and integrity
traits to differentiate • Self
Self--confidence
leaders from nonleaders.
• Intelligence
• High self-
self-monitoring
• Job-
Job-relevant
knowledge
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Contemporary Issues in
Leadership

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Trust: The Foundation of Leadership

Trust
A positive expectation that another will not—through
words, actions, or decisions—act opportunistically.
Trust is a history-dependent process (familiarity)
based on relevant but limited samples of experience
(risk).

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Dimensions of Trust
 Integrity  Loyalty
– honesty and truthfulness. – the willingness to protect
and save face for another
 Competence
person.
– an individual’s technical
 Openness
and interpersonal
knowledge and skills. – reliance on the person to
give you the full truth.
 Consistency
– an individual’s reliability,
predictability, and good
judgment in handling
situations.

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Trust and Leadership

Leadership

TRUST
and
INTEGRITY

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Framing: Using Words to Shape Meaning and
Inspire Others

Framing
A way to use language to
manage meaning.

Leaders use framing (selectively including or

excluding facts) to influence how others see
and interpret reality.

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Inspirational Approaches to Leadership

Charismatic Leadership Theory

Followers make attributions of heroic or
extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe
certain behaviors.

Charismatics Influence Followers By:

1. Articulating the vision
2. Setting high performance expectations
3. Conveying a new set of values
4. Making personal sacrifices
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Beyond Charismatic Leadership
 Level 5 Leaders
– Possess a fifth dimension—a paradoxical blend of
personal humility and professional will—in addition to
the four basic leadership qualities of individual
capability, team skills, managerial competence, and the
ability to stimulate others to high performance.
– Channel their ego needs away from themselves and
into the goal of building a great company.

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Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leaders
• Contingent Reward
Leaders who guide or • Management by
motivate their followers in Exception (active)
the direction of established • Management by
goals by clarifying role and Exception (passive)

task requirements. • Laissez-Faire

Transformational Leaders • Charisma

Leaders who provide • Inspiration
individualized consideration • Intellectual Stimulation
and intellectual stimulation, • Individual Consideration
and who possess charisma.
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Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
Effectiveness

Elements of Emotional
Intelligence:
• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Self-motivation
• Empathy
• Social skills

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Contemporary Leadership Roles: Providing
Team Leadership

Team Leadership Roles:

• Act as liaisons with
external constituencies.
• Serve as troubleshooters.
• Managing conflict.
• Coaching to improve team
member performance

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Contemporary Leadership Roles: Mentoring

Mentor
Mentoring Activities:
A senior employee who
sponsors and supports a • Present ideas clearly
less-experienced • Listen well
employee (a protégé).
• Empathize
• Share experiences
• Act as role model
• Share contacts
• Provide political
guidance
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Contemporary Leadership Roles:
Self-Leadership

Self-Leadership
Creating self leaders:
A set of processes
• Model self-leadership.
through which
• Encourage employees to
individuals control create self-set goals.
their own behavior.
• Encourage the use of self-
rewards.
• Create positive thought
patterns.
• Create a climate of self-
leadership.
• Encourage self-criticism.

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Ethical Leadership

Actions:
• Work to positively change the attitudes and
behaviors of employees.
• Engage in socially constructive behaviors.
• Do not abuse power or use improper means to
attain goals.

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Finding and Creating Effective Leaders
 Selection
– Review specific requirements for the job.
– Use tests that identify personal traits associated with
leadership, measure self-monitoring, and assess
emotional intelligence.
– Conduct personal interviews to determine candidate’s
fit with the job.
 Training
– Recognize the all people are not equally trainable.
– Teach skills that are necessary for employees to
become effective leaders.
– Provide behavioral training to increase the
development potential of nascent charismatic
employees.
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