ASSIGMENT- 1

Hub
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional features that enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs. A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

Technical information
A network hub is an unsophisticated device in comparison with, for example, a switch. A hub does not examine or manage any of the traffic that comes through it: any packet entering any port is rebroadcast on all other ports. Effectively, it is barely aware of frames or packets and mostly operates on raw bits. Consequently, packet collisions are more frequent in networks connected using hubs than in networks connected using more sophisticated devices. 100 Mbit/s hubs and repeaters come in two different speed grades: Class I delay the signal for a maximum of 140 bit times. The need for hosts to be able to detect collisions limits the number of hubs and the total size of a network built using hubs. For 10 Mbit/s networks built using repeater hubs, the 5-4-3 rule must be followed: up to 5 segments (4 hubs) are allowed between any two end stations. For 10BASE-T networks, up to five segments and four repeaters are allowed between any two hosts. For 100 Mbit/s networks, the limit is reduced to 3 segments (2 hubs) between any two end stations, and even that is only allowed if the hubs are of Class II. Some hubs have manufacturer specific stack ports allowing them to be combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple chaining through Ethernet cables, but even so, a large fast Ethernet network is likely to require switches to avoid the chaining limits of hubs. Most hubs detect typical problems, such as excessive collisions and jabbering on individual ports, and partition the port, disconnecting it from the shared medium. Thus, hub-based twistedpair Ethernet is generally more robust than coaxial cable-based Ethernet (e.g. 10BASE2), where a misbehaving device can adversely affect the entire collision domain. Even if not partitioned automatically, a hub simplifies troubleshooting because hubs remove the need to troubleshoot faults on a long cable with multiple taps; status lights on the hub can indicate the possible problem source or, as a last resort, devices can be disconnected from a hub one at a time much more easily than from a coaxial cable. Hubs are classified as physical layer devices in the OSI model. At the physical layer, hubs support little in the way of sophisticated networking. Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them and are not aware of their source or destination addressing. A hub simply receives incoming Ethernet frames, regenerates the electrical signal on the bit (more precisely the symbol) level, and broadcasts these symbols out to all other devices on the network. To pass data through the repeater in a usable fashion from one segment to the next, the framing and data rate must be the same on each segment. This means that a repeater cannot connect an 802.3 segment (Ethernet) and an 802.5 segment (Token Ring) or a 10 MBit/s segment to 100 MBit/s Ethernet.

Dual-speed hub
In the early days of fast Ethernet, Ethernet switches were relatively expensive devices. Hubs suffered from the problem that if there were any 10BASE-T devices connected then the whole network needed to run at 10 Mbit/s. Therefore a compromise between a hub and a switch was developed, known as a dual-speed hub. These devices consisted of an internal two-port switch, dividing the 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s segments. The device would typically consist of more than two physical ports. When a network device becomes active on any of the physical ports, the device attaches it to either the 10 Mbit/s segment or the 100 Mbit/s segment, as appropriate. This prevented the need for an all-or-nothing migration fast Ethernet networks. These devices are considered hubs because the traffic between devices connected at the same speed is not switched.

Uses
Historically, the main reason for purchasing hubs rather than switches was their price. This motivator has largely been eliminated by reductions in the price of switches, but hubs can still be useful in special circumstances:

For inserting a protocol analyzer into a network connection, a hub is an alternative to a network tap or port mirroring. When a switch is accessible for end users to make connections, for example, in a conference room, an inexperienced or careless user (or saboteur) can bring down the network by connecting two ports together, causing a loop. This can be prevented by using a hub, where a loop will break other users on the hub, but not the rest of the network. This hazard can also be avoided by using switches that can detect and deal with loops, for example by implementing the spanning tree protocol. A hub with a 10BASE2 port can be used to connect devices that only support 10BASE2 to a modern network. The same goes for linking in an old 10BASE5 network segment using an AUI port on a hub. Individual devices that were intended for thicknet can also be linked to modern Ethernet by using an AUI10BASE-T transceiver.

Switch
A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments or network devices. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3) and above are often referred to as layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.

Function
A switch is a telecommunication device which receives a message from any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to that device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network.) The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office(SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSLor cable internet. In most of these cases, the enduser device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP.

Role of switches in networks

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link and network. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch. In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITUT G.hnand 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at layer 3. Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer-3 switches can also be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers. In some service provider and other environments where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on [ combined modules.

Layer 1 hubs versus higher-layer switches

A network hub, or repeater, is a simple network device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them. Any packet entering a port is broadcast out or "repeated" on every other


port, except for the port of entry. Since every packet is repeated on every other port, packet collisions affect the entire network, limiting its capacity. There are specialized applications where a hub can be useful, such as copying traffic to multiple network sensors. High end switches have a feature which does the same thing called port mirroring. By the early 2000s, there was little price difference between a hub and a low-end switch.
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Layer 2
A network bridge, operating at the data link layer, may interconnect a small number of devices in a home or the office. This is a trivial case of bridging, in which the bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device. Single bridges also can provide extremely high performance in specialized applications such as storage area networks. Classic bridges may also interconnect using a spanning tree protocol that disables links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. The older IEEE 802.1D spanning tree protocol could be quite slow, with forwarding stopping for 30 seconds while the spanning tree would reconverge. A Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol was introduced as IEEE 802.1w, but the newest edition of IEEE 802.1D adopts the 802.1w extensions as the base standard. The IETF is specifying the TRILL protocol, which is the application of link-state routing technology to the layer-2 bridging problem. Devices which implement TRILL, called R Bridges, combine the best features of both routers and bridges. While layer 2 switch remains more of a marketing term than a technical term, the products that were introduced as "switches" tended to use microsegmentation andFull duplex to prevent collisions among devices connected to Ethernet. By using an internal forwarding plane much faster than any interface, they give the impression of simultaneous paths among multiple devices. 'Non-blocking' devices use a forwarding plane or equivalent method fast enough to allow full duplex traffic for each port simultaneously. Once a bridge learns the topology through a spanning tree protocol, it forwards data link layer frames using a layer 2 forwarding method. There are four forwarding methods a bridge can use, of which the second through fourth method were performance-increasing methods when used on "switch" products with the same input and output port bandwidths:

1. Store and forward: The switch buffers and verifies each frame before forwarding it. 2. Cut through: The switch reads only up to the frame's hardware address before starting to forward it. Cut-through switches have to fall back to

 3. store and forward if the outgoing port is busy at the time the packet arrives. There is no error checking with this method. 4. Fragment free: A method that attempts to retain the benefits of both store and forward and cut through. Fragment free checks the first 64 bytes of the frame, whereaddressing information is stored. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during the first 64 bytes of the frame, so frames that are in error because of a collision will not be forwarded. This way the frame will always reach its intended destination. Error checking of the actual data in the packet is left for the end device. 5. Adaptive switching: A method of automatically selecting between the other three modes. While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth. Layer 3 Within the confines of the Ethernet physical layer, a layer-3 switch can perform some or all of the functions normally performed by a router. The most common layer-3 capability is awareness of IP multicast through IGMP snooping. With this awareness, a layer-3 switch can increase efficiency by delivering the traffic of a multicast group only to ports where the attached device has signaled that it wants to listen to that group. Layer 4 While the exact meaning of the term layer-4 switch is vendor-dependent, it almost always starts with a capability for network address translation, but then adds some type of load distribution based on TCP sessions. The device may include a stateful firewall, a VPN concentrator, or be an IPSec security gateway. Layer 7 Layer-7 switches may distribute loads based on Uniform Resource Locator URL or by some installation-specific technique to recognize applicationlevel transactions. A layer-7 switch may include a web cache and participate in a content delivery network.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data wirelessly(using radio waves) over a computer network, including highspeed Internet connections. The Wi-Fi Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards".[1] However, since most modern WLANs are based on these standards, the term "Wi-Fi" is used in general English as a synonym for "WLAN".

The name Wi-Fi

The term Wi-Fi, first used commercially in August 1999, was coined by a brand-consulting firm called Interbrand Corporation that the Alliance had hired to determine a name that was "a little [16][17][18] catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'". Belanger also stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a play on words with Hi-Fi, and also created the Wi-Fi logo. The Wi-Fi Alliance initially used an advertising slogan for Wi-Fi, "The Standard for Wireless [16] Fidelity", but later removed the phrase from their marketing. Despite this, some documents [19][20] from the Alliance dated 2003 and 2004 still contain the term Wireless Fidelity. There was no official statement related to the dropping of the term. The yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability.
[19] [15]

Non-Wi-Fi technologies intended for fixed points such as Motorola Canopy are usually described as fixed wireless. Alternative wireless technologies include mobile phone standards such as 2G, 3G or 4G.

Wi-Fi certification
The IEEE does not test equipment for compliance with their standards. The non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance was formed in 1999 to fill this void to establish and enforce standards for interoperability and backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. As of 2010 the Wi-Fi Alliance consisted of more than 375 companies from around the [21][22] world. The Wi-Fi Alliance enforces the use of the Wi-Fi brand to technologies based on the IEEE 802.11 standards from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. This includes wireless local area network (WLAN) connections, device to device connectivity (such as Wi-Fi Peer to Peer aka Wi-Fi Direct), Personal area network(PAN), local area network (LAN) and even some limited wide area network (WAN) connections. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance, whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo.

Uses
To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer has to be equipped with a wireless network interface controller. The combination of computer and interface controller is called a station. All stations share a single radio frequency communication channel. Transmissions on this channel are received by all stations within range. The hardware does not signal the user that the transmission was delivered and is therefore called abest-effort delivery mechanism. A carrier wave is used to transmit the data in packets, referred to as "Ethernet frames". Each station is constantly tuned in on the radio frequency communication channel to pick up available transmissions.

ROUTER
A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node.

Applications
When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about destination addresses, using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router has interfaces for different physical types of network connections, (such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It also contains firmware for different


networking protocol standards. Each network interface uses this specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to another.

Security
External networks must be carefully considered as part of the overall security strategy. Separate from the router may be a firewall orVPN handling device, or the router may include these and other security functions. Many companies produced security-oriented routers, including Cisco Systems' PIX and ASA5500 series, Juniper's Netscreen, Watchguard's Firebox, Barracuda's variety of mailoriented devices, and many others.

WIMAX

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-persecond data rates, with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. It is a part of a fourth generation, or4G, of wireless-communication technology. WiMax far surpasses the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN), offering a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles).

Uses
The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:

Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries through a variety of devices. Providing a wireless alternative to cable and digital subscriber line (DSL) for "last mile" broadband access.

Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play). Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan. Smart grids and metering

Comparison with Wi-Fi

The following table only shows peak rates which are potentially very misleading. In addition, the comparisons listed are not normalized by physical channel size (i.e., spectrum used to achieve the listed peak rates); this obfuscates spectral efficiency and net through-put capabilities of the different wireless technologies listed below. Comparison of Mobile Internet Access methods

Com mon Name

Family

Primar y Use

Radio Tech

Downstr eam (Mbit/s)

Upstr eam (Mbit/ s)

Notes

HSPA+ 3GPP

Used in 4G

CDMA/FDD MIMO

21 42 84 672

5.8 11.5 22 168

HSPA+ is widely deployed. Revision 11 of the 3GPP states thatHSPA+ is expected to have a throughput capacity of 672 Mbps.

LTE

3GPP

General 4G

100 Cat3 OFDMA/MIM 150 Cat4 O/SC-FDMA 300 Cat5 (in 20 MHz

50 Cat3/4 75 Cat5 (in 20

LTEAdvanced up date expected to

 Comparison of Mobile Internet Access methods

Com mon Name

Family

Primar y Use

Radio Tech

Downstr eam (Mbit/s) FDD)[31]

Upstr eam (Mbit/ s) MHz FDD)[31]

Notes

offer peak rates up to 1 Gbit/s fixed speeds and 100 Mb/s to mobile users.

WiMax 802.16 rel 1

WirelessM MIMOAN SOFDMA

37 (10 MHz TDD)

17 With 2x2 (10 MHz MIMO.[32] TDD)

WiMax 802.16rel 1.5 2009

WirelessM MIMOAN SOFDMA

83 (20 MHz TDD) 141 (2x20 MHz FDD)

46 (20 MHz TDD) 138 (2x20 M Hz FDD)

With 2x2 MIMO.Enhan ced with 20Mhz channels in 802.162009[32]

WiMAX WirelessM MIMO802.16m rel 2 AN SOFDMA

2x2 MIMO 110 (20 MHz TDD) 183 (2x20 MHz FDD) 4x4 MIMO 219 (20 MHz

2x2 MIMO 70 (20 MHz TDD) 188 (2x20 M Hz FDD) 4x4 MIMO

Also low mobility users can aggregate multiple channels for up to DL throughput 1Gbps[32]

 Comparison of Mobile Internet Access methods

Com mon Name

Family

Primar y Use

Radio Tech

Downstr eam (Mbit/s) TDD) 365 (2x20 MHz FDD)

Upstr eam (Mbit/ s) 140(20 MHz TDD) 376 (2x20 M Hz FDD)

Notes

Flash- FlashOFDM OFDM

Mobile Internet 5.3 mobility up Flash-OFDM 10.6 to 15.9 200 mph (350 km/h)

1.8 3.6 5.4

Mobile range 30 km (18 miles) extended range 55 km (34 miles)

HIPERM HIPERM Mobile AN AN Internet

OFDM

56.9

Antenna, RF front

Wi-Fi

802.11 (11n)

Mobile Int OFDM/MIMO ernet

288.8 (using 4x4 configuration in 20 MHz bandwidth) or 600 (using 4x4 configuration in 40 MHz bandwidth)

end enhanceme nts and minor protocol timer tweaks have helped deploy long range P2P netw orks

 Comparison of Mobile Internet Access methods

Com mon Name

Family

Primar y Use

Radio Tech

Downstr eam (Mbit/s)

Upstr eam (Mbit/ s)

Notes

compromising on radial coverage, throughput and/or spectra efficiency (310 km & 382 k m)

UMTS- UMTS/3 TDD GSM

Mobile Internet

CDMA/TDD

16

Reported speeds according to IPWireless using 16QAM modulation similar to HSDPA+H SUPA

WAP(WIRELESS ACCESS POINT)

In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP) is a device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. The WAP usually connects to a router (via a wired network) if it's a standalone device, or is part of router itself.

Common WAP applications

A typical corporate use involves attaching several WAPs to a wired network and then providing wireless access to the office LAN. The wireless access points are managed by a WLAN Controller which handles automatic adjustments to RF power, channels, authentication, and security. Further, controllers can be combined to form a wireless mobility group to allow intercontroller roaming. The controllers can be part of a mobility domain to allow clients access throughout large or regional office locations. This saves the clients time and administrators overhead because it can automatically re-associate or re-authenticate.

WAP 2
A re-engineered 2.0 version was released in 2002. It uses a cut-down version of XHTML with end-to-end HTTP, dropping the gateway and custom protocol suite used to communicate with it. A WAP gateway can be used in conjunction with WAP 2.0; however, in this scenario, it is used as a standard proxy server. The WAP gateway's role would then shift from one of translation to adding additional information to each request. This would be configured by the operator and could include telephone numbers, location, billing information, and handset information. Mobile devices process XHTML Mobile Profile (XHTML MP), the markup language defined in WAP 2.0. It is a subset of XHTML and a superset of XHTML Basic. A version of cascading style sheets (CSS) called WAP CSS is supported by XHTML MP.