Spectral Measurements
S(f) TA(f)
Case A: Bandwidth exceeds that of available amplifiers
f channels f1 fN f1 fN f1 fN
1) Extreme bandwidth: use multiple receivers and antennas 2) If signal large compared to detector noise, detect directly or split frequencies and then detect 3) Use passive frequency splitters before amplification or detection
Receivers-G1
Spectral Measurements
f1 fN
Case B: Bandwidth permits amplification 1) Amplify before either detection or further frequency splitting
Case C: Bandwidth permits digital spectral analysis 1) If computer resources permit, compute V( f ) N
2 M
(~ N log2 N multiplys per N - point transform :
Resolution f 2B N
average M spectra )
2) Or 1-bit (or n-bit) N ( ) N ( f )(N samples) (Permits ~100 more B per cm2 silicon)
(Reference: Van Vleck and Middleton, Proc. IEEE, 54, (1966)
G2
Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters
1. Circuits
IN Zo
f1
f2
fn
2. Waveguides
channel-dropping filters filters fN Zo at f1 /4 f
f1 RCVR
f2
f3 RCVR f1 resonant cavities at ff virtual short
passive
G3
Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters
3. Prism
prism red f blue fo bound electron(s) (f)
4. Diffraction grating
5. Cascaded Dichroics
<f1 plane wave >f1 >f2 <f2 fn >fn-1(f1>f2>fn)
G4
Digital spectral analysis example: autocorrelation
() (f) [W Hz-1] analog signals f
Possible analog implementation:
BRF 0 fRF f LO local oscillator v ( ) is based on : 1) max lag = max = NT 2) sample lag, T sec 3) finite integration time >> max 0 fIF f v(t) BBRF delay line
v (T ) v (2T ) v (NT )
G5
NT = max
Resolution of autocorrelation analysis
W()
1) v ( ) = y ( ) W ( ) 7 < M 7 7 7 v (f ) = v (f ) W (f )
-M m
0 W(f)
M = NT
0 Thus v(f) v(f) W(f)
~1/2 M Hz 0 f 0 B f
G6
Aliasing in autocorrelation spectrometers
i(t)
2) v ( ) = 7 v (f ) =
v ( ) 7
i( t ) 7 7
0 I(f) T t
v ( f ) I( f )
v (f )
B -1/T 0 1/T 2/T f(Hz)
-1/T
1/T
2/T
Aliasing is spectral overlap
3) Finite averaging time adds noise to v ( ), v ( f )
G7
Autocorrelation of hard-clipped signals
v(t) A/D x(t) c o u n t e r v ( ) delay line
()
LO
1 hard clipping +1 if v(t) > 0 +1 A/D 1 0 -1 vo(t)
Receivers-I1
Analysis of 1-bit autocorrelation
+ 1 x 0 where x1, x 2 are JGRVZM Let x (t1) x1, x (t 2 ) x 2, sgn x -1 x < 0 x ( ) = E[sgn x1 sgn x 2 ] =
2 x1 2x1x 2 + x 2 2 1 2 12 dx dx e sgn x1 sgn x 2 12 1 2 2(1 )
( )
where ( ) x1x 2 v ( ), = t 2 t1
x ( ) = 2 [p(x1, x 2 )]dx1dx 2 2
0 0 0
p(x1, x2 )dx1dx 2
0 Note : 2 + 2 = 1 0 0
I2
= 4 p(x1, x 2 )dx1dx 2 1
0
Power spectrum for 1-bit signal
Change variables
x2 rd r dr x1
x1 = r cos x2 = r sin dx1dx2 = rdr d
r r2 1 e x ( ) = 4 d d 2 2 12 0 0 2 1 2
( )
2
1 sin 2 2 1 2
= 4 d
0
2(1 sin 2 )
(1 )
2 12
I3
Power spectrum for 1-bit signal
= 4 d
0
2
2(1 sin 2 )
(1 )
2 12
Let 2
(1 )1 2 x ( ) = 4
4
1 1 d 1 = 4 + sin1 1 1 sin 2 2 0
( ) = sin ( ) v x 2
Where x ( ) = (sgn v(t) )(sgn v(t - )) T
a Note : has bias if b not exact p(a) 0 b0 p(b) b
(see Burns & Yao, Radio Sci., 4(5) p. 431 (1969))
I4
Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver
( f )rms Teff f 1 ; 1 .6 B f channel bandwidth f
0.60 fs N (S. Weinreb empirical result, MIT EE PhD thesis, 1963) first sidelobe
Apodizing weighting functions:
uniform
1.099
-7 dB
0 raised cosine
0.87
fs N
-16 dB
1 N fs = ; N = # taps T M
0.69
1.13 fs N
blackman
-29 dB
Note trade between spectral resolution, sidelobes in (f) and Trms
I5
Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver
If N delay-line taps, how many spectral samples Ns? Say uniform weighting of (): 1 0 W()
Then B = Ns f = Ns (1/2M) where spectral resolution f 1/2m for orthogonal channels from boxcar W() W(f)
1 2 M
W(f) for adjacent channel f
Ns = 2MB = 2 NT B (T = 1 2B at nyquist rate ) = N(# taps )
In practice: raised cosine widens f by 1/0.6 1.7, so Ns N/1.7
I6
Receivers Gain and Noise Figure
Types of power Delivered Available Exchangeable
v ( t ) Re Ve jt
+ Vg Rg + j Xg
Zg
+ V -
ZL
= Re {V} cos t + Im {V} sin t
1 R VI ( P ) Pdelivered D 2 e Pavailable max PD , i.e., if ZL = Z g
Receivers-K1
{ }
Delivered and Available Power
1 Pdelivered Re VI ( PD ) 2 Pavailable max PD, i.e., if ZL = Z PD
{ }
PA
If : R e Z g > 0 Im Z g = 0
- Re Zg
0 PD
Re Zg
RL
If : R e Z g < 0
Re Zg
RL - Re Zg
Pexchangeab le PD ( finite - power option ) ZL = Z g
K2
Definition of Gain
Zg
1 2
ZL PD
with amplifier without
Gpower (= Gp)
PD PA PD
Gavailable (= GA) Gtransducer (GT)
power
2 2 2
PD
1 1
Ginsertion (= GI)
PD PE
PA PA
1 amplifier
Gexchangeable (=GE)
2 1
PE
Note: GA, GE
dont depend on ZL do depend on Zg (via PE2)
K3
Definition: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
First define: N1 N2 S1 S2 = = = = exchangeable noise power spectrum @ Port 1 same, at 2 exchangeable signal power spectrum @ Port 1 same, at 2
Recall GE = f Zg Zg Vg G 1 2
WH z1
( )
F ZL
Define SNR1 S1 N1 ; SNR 2 S2 N2
K4
Definition: Noise Figure F
SNR1 S1 N1 , where N kT , T 290 K F 1 o o SNR 2 S2 N2
[Ref. Proc. IRE, 57(7), p.52 (7/1957); Proc. IEEE, p.436 (3/1963)]
S2 = GES1 (see definition of GE) N2 = GEN1 + N2T transducer noise S1 N1 N2T F = = 1+ GS1 (GN1 + N2T ) N1G
N2T kTRG TR F 1 = = N1G kToG To
(let G GE )
receiver noise temperature
excess noise figure
K5
Receiver Noise Example
TA
+
G, F 1 noiseless
TA
G, F
TR TR = (F 1) To
290K
TA
G, F 1
Excess noise corresponds to receiver noise temperature TR
N2T
Examples: TR TR TR TR = 0K F = 1+ = 1 (F = 0 dB) To = 290K F = 2 (F = 3 dB) = 1500K F 6 (F ~= 7.5 dB)
K6
