Process Description and Control
Requirements of an Operating System
Interleave the execution of multiple processes to maximize processor utilization while providing reasonable response time Allocate resources to processes Support interprocess communication and user creation of processes
Concepts
Computer platform consists of a collection of hardware resources Computer applications are developed to perform some task Inefficient for applications to be written directly for a given hardware platform Operating system provides a convenient to use, feature rich, secure, and consistent interface for applications to use OS provides a uniform, abstract representation of resources that can be requested and accessed by application
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Manage Execution of Applications
Resources made available to multiple applications Processor is switched among multiptle application The processor and I/O devices can be used efficiently
Process
A program in execution An instance of a program running on a computer The entity that can be assigned to and executed on a processor A unit of activity characterized by the execution of a sequence of instructions, a current state, and an associated set of system instructions
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Process Elements
Identifier State Priority Program counter Memory pointers Context data I/O status information Accounting information
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Process Control Block
Contains the process elements Created and manage by the operating system Allows support for multiple processes
Process Control Block
Trace of Process
Sequence of instruction that execute for a process Dispatcher switches the processor from one process to another
Example Execution
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Trace of Processes
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Two-State Process Model
Process may be in one of two states
Running Not-running
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Not-Running Process in a Queue
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Process Creation
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Process Termination
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Process Termination
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Processes
Not-running
ready to execute
Blocked
waiting for I/O
Dispatcher cannot just select the process that has been in the queue the longest because it may be blocked
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A Five-State Model
Running Ready Blocked New Exit
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Five-State Process Model
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Process States
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Using Two Queues
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Multiple Blocked Queues
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Suspended Processes
Processor is faster than I/O so all processes could be waiting for I/O Swap these processes to disk to free up more memory Blocked state becomes suspend state when swapped to disk Two new states
Blocked/Suspend ReadySuspend
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One Suspend State
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Two Suspend States
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Reasons for Process Suspension
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Processes and Resources
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Operating System Control Structures
Information about the current status of each process and resource Tables are constructed for each entity the operating system manages Tables maintained by OS are Memory Tables I/O File Process 29
Memory Tables
Allocation of main memory to processes Allocation of secondary memory to processes Protection attributes for access to shared memory regions Information needed to manage virtual memory
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I/O Tables
For mgmt of I/O devices & channels I/O device is available or assigned Status of I/O operation Location in main memory being used as the source or destination of the I/O transfer
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File Tables
Provides information aboutExistence of files Location on secondary memory Current Status Attributes Sometimes this information is maintained by a file management system
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Process Table
To manage and control processes Location (Where process is located) Attributes in the process control block
Program Data Stack
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Process Image
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Memory and file tables are managed on behalf of processes, so there must be be some reference to these resources directly or indirectly in the process tables Files referred to in the file tables are accessible via an I/O device and will at some times be in main or virtual memory
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Process control Structure
In order to manage and control a process what are the things that OS must know? Location Attributes of the process that are necessary for its management (PID and state) Process Location: Process includes a program, set of data associated with it, attributes and stack(used to keep track of procedure calls) Collection of attributes is called PCB and collection of program, data & stack is called Process Image. 37
Elements of process image
User data- program data, user stack and programs that may be modified User programs- program to be executed System stack- LIFO system stack used to store parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls PCB
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Process Attributes
3 categoriesProcess identification Processor state information Process control information
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Process Attributes
Process identification
Identifiers
Numeric identifiers that may be stored with the process control block include
Identifier of this process Identifier of the process that created this process (parent process) User identifier
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Process Attributes
Processor State Information
User-Visible Registers
A user-visible register is one that may be referenced by means of the machine language that the processor executes while in user mode. Typically, there are from 8 to 32 of these registers, although some RISC implementations have over 100.
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Process Control Block
Processor State Information
Control and Status Registers
These are a variety of processor registers that are employed to control the operation of the processor. These include Program counter: Contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched Condition codes: Result of the most recent arithmetic or logical operation (e.g., sign, zero, carry, equal, overflow) Status information: Includes interrupt enabled/disabled flags, execution mode
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Process Control Block
Processor State Information
Stack Pointers
Each process has one or more last-in-first-out (LIFO) system stacks associated with it. A stack is used to store parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls. The stack pointer points to the top of the stack.
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Process Control Block
Process Control Information
Scheduling and State Information
This is information that is needed by the operating system to perform its scheduling function. Typical items of information: Process state: defines the readiness of the process to be scheduled for execution (e.g., running, ready, waiting, halted). Priority: One or more fields may be used to describe the scheduling priority of the process. In some systems, several values are required (e.g., default, current, highest-allowable) Scheduling-related information: This will depend on the scheduling algorithm used. Examples are the amount of time that the process has been waiting and the amount of time that the process executed the last time it was running. Event: Identity of event the process is awaiting before it can 44 be resumed
Process Control Block
Process Control Information
Data Structuring
A process may be linked to other process in a queue, ring, or some other structure. For example, all processes in a waiting state for a particular priority level may be linked in a queue. A process may exhibit a parent-child (creator-created) relationship with another process. The process control block may contain pointers to other processes to support these structures.
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Process Control Block
Process Control Information
Interprocess Communication
Various flags, signals, and messages may be associated with communication between two independent processes. Some or all of this information may be maintained in the process control block.
Process Privileges
Processes are granted privileges in terms of the memory that may be accessed and the types of instructions that may be executed. In addition, privileges may apply to the use of system utilities and services.
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Process Control Block
Process Control Information
Memory Management
This section may include pointers to segment and/or page tables that describe the virtual memory assigned to this process.
Resource Ownership and Utilization
Resources controlled by the process may be indicated, such as opened files. A history of utilization of the processor or other resources may also be included; this information may be needed by the scheduler.
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Processor State Information
Contents of processor registers
User-visible registers Control and status registers Stack pointers
Program status word (PSW)
contains status information Example: the EFLAGS register on Pentium machines
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Pentium II EFLAGS Register
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Modes of Execution
User mode
Less-privileged mode User programs typically execute in this mode
System mode, control mode, or kernel mode
More-privileged mode Kernel of the operating system
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Process Creation
Assign a unique process identifier Allocate space for the process Initialize process control block Set up appropriate linkages
Ex: add new process to linked list used for scheduling queue
Create of expand other data structures
Ex: maintain an accounting file
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When to Switch a Process
Clock interrupt
process has executed for the maximum allowable time slice
I/O interrupt Memory fault
memory address is in virtual memory so it must be brought into main memory
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When to Switch a Process
Trap
error or exception occurred may cause process to be moved to Exit state
Supervisor call
such as file open
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Change of Process State
Save context of processor including program counter and other registers Update the process control block of the process that is currently in the Running state Move process control block to appropriate queue ready; blocked; ready/suspend Select another process for execution
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Change of Process State
Update the process control block of the process selected Update memory-management data structures Restore context of the selected process
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Execution of the Operating System
Non-process Kernel
Execute kernel outside of any process Operating system code is executed as a separate entity that operates in privileged mode
Execution Within User Processes
Operating system software within context of a user process Process executes in privileged mode when executing operating system code
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Execution of the Operating System
Process-Based Operating System
Implement operating system as a collection of system processes Useful in multi-processor or multicomputer environment
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UNIX SVR4 Process Management
Most of the operating system executes within the environment of a user process
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UNIX Process States
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UNIX Process Image
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