Lecture: 6 Part-2 Many methods of

state space representations

This is the phase variable form of representation. In this method each subsequent state
variable is defined to be the derivative of the previous state variable. This known as the
Phase-variable canonical form(PVCF) or controller canonical form(CCF)
| |
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

n
n n
n
n
n
x
x
x
y
u
b x
x
x
x
a a a a
x
x
x
x

2
1
1
2
1
1 2 1 0
.
3
.
2
.
1
.
0 0 1
.
0
.
1 0 . 0 . 0
. . . . .
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
Or we can write:
Du Cx y
Bu Ax x
+ =
+ =
.
Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form for the transfer function:
9 6 4
3
) (
) (
2 2
+ + +
=
s s s s R
s C
Solution:
Cross multiplication yields:
) ( 3 ) ( ) 9 6 4 (
2 3
s R s C s s s = + + +
Taking the Inverse Laplace transform of, both sides of the equation and assuming zero
initial conditions:
r c c c c 3 9 6 4
. .. ...
= + + +
Selecting state variables as successive derivatives we can get:
...
2
..
3
. ..
2
.
3
.
1
.
2
.
2
1 1 1
c x x c x x
c x x c x
x x or c x
= = = =
= = =
= =
Now we can write:
r x x x x
x x
x x
3 9 6 4
1 2 3
3
.
3
2
.
2
1
.
+ =
=
=
Output equation:
1
x c y = =
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
0 0 1
3
0
0
4 6 9
1 0 0
0 1 0
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
R(s) sX
3
(s) X
3
(s) sX
2
(s) X
2
(s) sX
1
(s) X
1
(s) Y(s)
} equation Output x c y
equations Input
r x x x x
x x
x x
1
3 2 1
3
.
3
2
.
2
1
.
3 4 6 9
= =

+ =
=
=
-4
3
-9
1/s
1
1/s 1/s
1
-6
Cascade Form: We have introduced the cascade form in the previous lecture.
Consider the equation:
1
) 3 )( 2 )( 1 (
3
) (
) (

+ + +
= eq
s s s s R
s C
The above transfer function can be separated into individual blocks as shown below:
3
R(s)
) 1 (
1
+ s ) 2 (
1
+ s
) 3 (
1
+ s
C(s)
3
) 1 (
1
+ s ) 2 (
1
+ s
) 3 (
1
+ s
C(s) R(s)
Cascade method
The output of each first order block has been labelled as a state variable from end
block. (Note here this is not the phase variable form of representation)
X
3
(s)
X
2
(s)
X
1
(s)
The signal flow graph for each first order block can be drawn by transforming each
block in to an equivalent differential equation.
Let us take the block of , and assume:
) 3 (
1
+ s
) 3 (
1
) (
) (
1
1
+
=
s s R
s C
From cross multiplication:
(s+3) C
1
(s) = R
1
(s)
Taking Inverse Laplace transform, we have:



sC
1
(s) = R
1
(s) -3C
1
(s)
2 ) ( ) ( 3 ) (
1 1 1
= + eq t r t c t c
dt
d
R1(s) 1 sC1(s) 1/s C(s)
-3
State diagram
R(s) 3 1/s X
3
(s) 1 1/s X
2
(s) 1 1/s X
1
(s) 1 C(s)
-1 -2 -3
Now we can derive the state equation from state diagram:
1 ) (
:
:
3
2
3
3
3
.
3 2
2
.
2 1
1
.
x t c y
equation Output
inspection By
r x x
x x x
x x x
= =
+ =
+ =
+ =
Hence the state space representation:
| |
== ========== ==========
=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

=
x y
r x x
0 0 1
3
0
0
1 0 0
1 2 0
0 1 3
.
Parallel Form:
In this method we take the partial fractions first and expand the transfer function.
) 4 (
4
) 3 (
6
) 1 (
2
) 4 )( 2 )( 1 (
12
) (
) (
) 4 )( 2 )( 1 (
12
) (
) (
+
+
+

+
=
+ + +
=
+ + +
=
s s s s s s s R
s C
s s s s R
s C
We can write the same equation as shown below:
3 .
) 4 (
4 ). (
) 3 (
6 ). (
) 1 (
2 ). (
) (
+
+
+

+
= eq
s
s R
s
s R
s
s R
s C
Eq-3 can be considered as the sum of individual first-order subsystems.
Recognizing C(s) as the sum of three terms, each term can be considered
as a subsystem with R(s) as the input. According to this idea the SFG can
be drawn as shown in the next slide.
X
2
(s)
1/s
-1
-3
R(s) -6 1/s X
2
(s) 1 C(s)
1/s
X
1
(s)
-4
4
1
1
3 2 1
3
3
.
2
2
.
1
1
.
) (
4 4
6 3
2
x x x t c y
r x x
r x x
r x x
+ + = =
+ =
=
+ =
| |x y
r x x
1 1 1
4
6
2
4 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 1
.
=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

=
The advantage of this representation is that each equation is a first-order differential
equation. Therefore we can solve these equations independently. Hence this type of
equations are said to be decoupled
Controller Canonical Form(CCF):
CCF is another way of representing phase variables in state-space method. This method is
nothing else other than representing the phase-variable form in reverse order.

Consider a transfer function:
22 18 7
2 3
) (
) (
) (
2 3
2
+ + +
+ +
= =
s s s
s s
s R
s C
s G
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
1 3 2
1
0
0
7 18 22
1 0 0
0 1 0
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
State space representation in
phase-variable form is:
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

1
2
3
2
3
1
.
2
.
3
.
1 3 2
1
0
0
1 7 18 22
1 0 0
0 1 0
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
If we re-number the phase variables in reverse order:
Now we can arrange equations and so as the matrices to give the ascending order:
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
2 3 1
0
0
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
22 18 7
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
Next slide for
more details:
R U sU U s U s and
U sU U s c y let
s s s R
U
and
s s
U
C
s s s
s s
R
U
U
C
s s s
s s
s R
s C
= + + +
+ + = =
+ + +
=
+ + =
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + +
+ +
=
22 18 7
2 3
22 18 7
1
2 3
22 18 7
2 3
.
22 18 7
2 3
) (
) (
2 3
2
2 3
2
2 3
2
2 3
2
Now we have to define the state variables in reverse order:
...
1
.
1
..
2
.
2
.
3
.
3 3
u x
x u x
x u x
u x x
=
= =
= =
= =
3 2 1
3 2 1
1
.
...
1
.
1
..
2
.
2
.
3
.
3 3
2 3
22 18 7
x x x c y
r x x x x
u x
x u x
x u x
u x x
+ + = =
+ =
=
= =
= =
= =
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
2 3 1
0
0
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
22 18 7
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
1 1/s 1/s 1/s 2
Now to construct the state diagram is also very easy:
3 2 1
3 2 1
1
.
...
1
.
1
..
2
.
2
.
3
.
3 3
2 3
22 18 7
x x x c y
r x x x x
u x
x u x
x u x
u x x
+ + = =
+ =
=
= =
= =
= =
R(s) X
1
(s) X
2
(s) X
3
(s)
C(s)
-22
-18
-7
1
3
State diagram in s-domain for Controller Canonical Form
Observer Canonical Form:
Consider the same example:
22 18 7
2 3
) (
) (
) (
2 3
2
+ + +
+ +
= =
s s s
s s
s R
s C
s G
By dividing both Numerator and denominator by the highest power of s :
) (
22 18 7
1 ) (
2 3 1
22 18 7
1
2 3 1
) (
) (
3 2 3 2
3 2
3 2
s C
s s s
s R
s s s
s s s
s s s
s R
s C
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ + +
+ +
=
Rearranging the equation:
)] ( 22 ) ( 2 [
1
)] ( 18 ) ( 3 [
1
)] ( 7 ) ( [
1
) (
3 2
s C s R
s
s C s R
s
s C s R
s
s C + + =
Consider only: C(s)=1/s[R(s)-7C(s)]
SFG for this term is:
----eq4
C(s)=1/s[R(s)-7C(s)] :SFG for this term is:
X
1
(s)
C(s)
R(s)
1
1/s
1
-7
)]) ( 22 ) ( 2 [
1
)] ( 18 ) ( 3 [
1
)] ( 7 ) ( ([
1
) (
2
s C s R
s
s C s R
s
s C s R
s
s C + + =
According to the eq4 we can see that first terms under 1/s is integrated
once and the second terms 1/s
2
[3R(s) -18C(s)] is integrated twice so on.
Hence we have to add the rest of terms to the State diagram as shown in
the next slide:
1/s X
3
(s) 1 1/s X
2
(s) 1 1/s X
1
(s) 1
R(s)
2
3
1
C(s)
-22
-18
-7
By looking at the state diagram
now we can deduce the state
equations:
By observing left to the right
1
2 1
1
.
3 1
2
.
1
3
.
7
3 18
2 22
x y
r x x x
r x x x
r x x
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ =
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
0 0 1
2
3
1
0 0 22
1 0 18
0 1 7
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
The state- space
representation:
Observer canonical Form
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
2 3 1
0
0
1
0 1 0
0 0 1
22 18 7
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
Controller canonical form
1
2
3
| |
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

3
2
1
3
2
1
3
.
2
.
1
.
1 3 2
1
0
0
7 18 22
1 0 0
0 1 0
x
x
x
y
r
x
x
x
x
x
x
Controller canonical form
Phase variable form
Stability of a State Space Model
State space model:
Du Cx y
Bu Ax x
+ =
+ =
.
State equation
Output equation
The above state-space model is stable if and only if the eigenvalues of the system
matrix A that is ,the roots of the systems characteristic equation,
0 = A sI
All lie in the left half of the s-plane.
(

=
2 1
1 2
A Let
e.g:
The associated eigenvalues are -3, -1
Hence the system is stable.