Chapter 22: Machining Operations and Machine Tools I

Rizwan M. Gul NWFP UET

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MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE TOOLS

Turning and Related Operations Drilling and Related Operations Milling Machining Centers and Turning Centers Other Machining Operations High Speed Machining

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Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry remains Most common application: to shape metal parts Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features (e.g. screw threads, gear teeth, flat surfaces) Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the precision and accuracy of machining

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Classification of Machined Parts

1. Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape. Achieved by rotation motion of the workpart. Ex. turning and boring 2. Nonrotational (also called prismatic) - block-like or plate-like. Achieved by linear motion of the workpart. Ex. Milling, shaping, planing and sawing

Figure 22.1 - Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational, shown here by block and flat parts
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Machining Operations and Part Geometry

Each machining operation produces a characteristic part geometry due to two factors: 1. Relative motions between the tool and the workpart Generating part geometry is determined by the feed trajectory of the cutting tool. Feed motion creates shape. Ex. Straight turning, taper turning, and profile milling 2. Shape of the cutting tool Forming part geometry is created by the shape of the cutting tool. Cutting edge has the reverse of the shape to be produced on the part surface. Ex. Form turning, drilling and broaching Forming and generating are sometimes combined in one operation, such as in thread cutting on a lathe and slot milling
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Figure 22.2 - Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
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Figure 22.3 - Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching

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Figure 22.4 - Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling

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Turning
A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation Performed on a machine tool called a lathe Variations of turning that are performed on a lathe: Facing Contour turning Chamfering Cutoff Threading
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N=v/Do

Do Df =2d MRR = vfd

Figure 22.5 - Turning operation

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Facing
Tool is fed radially inward to create a flat surface

Figure 22.6 (a) facing

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Contour Turning
Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation, tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form

Figure 22.6 (c) contour turning

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Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"

Figure 22.6 (e) chamfering

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Cutoff
Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to cut off end of part (also called parting)

Figure 22.6 (f) cutoff

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Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a large feed rate, thus creating threads

Figure 22.6 (g) threading

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Machining Operation - Lathe Machining Operation - Lathe

Facing Taper turning

Contour turning

Form turning

Chamfering

Cutoff

Threading

Boring

Drilling

Knurling
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The Engine Lathe

Figure 22.7 Diagram of an engine lathe, showing its principal components

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Lathe Machines
Most lathe machines are horizontal but vertical lathe machines are also used for jobs with large diameter relative to the length and for heavy work The size of the lathe is designated by swing and maximum distance between centers Swing is the maximum workpart diameter that can be rotated in the spindle Maximum distance between centers indicate the maximum length of a workpiece that can be mounted between headstock and tailstock centers 350 mm x 1.2 m lathe means a swing of 350 mm and maximum distance between centers of 1.2 m
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Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe

There are four common methods used to hold workparts in turning-to grasp the work, center and support it in position along the spindle axis, and rotate it: Holding the work between centers Chuck Collet Face plate

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Holding the Work Between Centers

Figure 22.8 (a) mounting the work between centers using a "dog Appropriate for parts with large length to diameter ratios The tailstock center can be either live or dead
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Chuck

Figure 22.8 (b) three-jaw chuck Can also be four-jaw A self-centering chuck has a mechanism to move the jaws in or out simultaneously thus centering the work at the spindle axis
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Collet

Figure 22.8 (c) collet Collet is a tubular bushing with longitudinal slits running over half its length and equally spaced around its circumference
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Face Plate

Figure 22.8 (d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts The face plates is equipped with custom-designed clamps for the particular geometry of the part
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Other Lathes and Turning Machines

Other turning machines developed to satisfy particular functions or to automate the turning process: Toolroom lathe Speed Lathe Turret Lathe Chucking Machine Automatic Screw Machine Numerically Controlled Lathe

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Turret Lathe
A manually operated lathe in which the tailstock replaced by turret that holds up to six tools Tools rapidly brought into action by indexing the turret Tool post replaced by four-sided turret to index four tools Applications: high production work that requires a sequence of cuts on the part

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Turret Lathe
Figure 22.9 Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two turrets: square and hexagonal (main). Source: American Machinist and Automated Manufacturing.

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Examples of Turrets
(b)

Figure 22.11 (a) A turret with six different tools for inside-diameter and outside-diameter cutting and threading operations. (b) A turret with eight different cutting tools. Source: Monarch Machine Tool Company.

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Chucking Machine
Uses chuck in its spindle to hold workpart No tailstock, so parts cannot be mounted between centers Cutting tool actions controlled automatically Operators job: to load and unload parts Applications: short, light-weight parts

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Bar Machine
Similar to chucking machine except collet replaces chuck, permitting long bar stock to be fed through headstock At the end of the machining cycle, a cutoff operation separates the new part Highly automated (the term automatic bar machine is often used) Applications: high production of rotational parts.

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Automatic Screw Machine

Same as automatic bar machine but smaller Applications: high production of screws and similar small hardware items; hence, its name

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Multiple Spindle Bar Machines

More than one spindle, so multiple parts machined simultaneously by multiple tools Example: six spindle automatic bar machine works on six parts at a time After each machining cycle, spindles (including collets and workbars) are indexed (rotated) to next position

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Figure 22.9 - (a) Part produced on a six-spindle automatic bar machine; and (b) sequence of operations to produce the part: (1) feed stock to stop, (2) turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff

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Computer Numerical Control Lathe

Figure 22.10 A computer numerical control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine. Source: Jones & Lamson, Textron, Inc.
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Boring
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating workpart Difference between boring and turning: Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder In effect, boring is an internal turning operation Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines Boring machines Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation of machine spindle
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Horizontal Boring

Boring bar on tool post

Boring bar between centres

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Vertical Boring Mill

Figure 22.12 - A vertical boring mill for large, heavy workparts Usually the workpart diameter is greater than its length Typical boring machine can position and feed several cutting tools simultaneously Page 38

Drilling
Machining operation used to create a round hole in a workpart Contrasts with boring which can only enlarge an existing hole Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit-a rotating cylindrical tool which has two cutting edges on its working end Customarily performed on a drill press

Figure 21.3 (b) drilling

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Cutting Conditions in Drilling

N=v/D

MRR = D2fr / 4

where fr=Nf

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Through Holes vs. Blind Holes

Through-holes - drill exits the opposite side of work Blind-holes drill does not exit work on opposite side

Figure 22.13 - Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole
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Operations Related to Drilling

Most of these operations follow drilling; a hole must be made first by drilling, and then the hole is modified by one or the other operations Reaming Tapping Counterboring Countersinking Centering Spotfacing

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Reaming
Used to slightly enlarge a hole, provide better tolerance on diameter, and improve surface finish The tool called reamer has straight flutes
Figure 22.14 Machining operations related to drilling: (a) reaming

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Tapping
Used to provide internal screw threads on an existing hole Tool called a tap

Figure 22.14 (b) tapping

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Counterboring
Provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole Used to seat boltheads into a hole

Figure 22.14 (c) counterboring

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Countersinking

Centre drilling

Spot facing

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Drill Presses: The Machine Tools for Drilling

Upright Drill
Stands on the floor

Bench Drill
Similar but smaller and mounted on a table or bench

Figure 22.15 - Upright drill press

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Radial Drill
Large drill press designed for large parts Head can be positioned at significant distance from the column to accommodate large work

Figure 22.16 - Radial drill press (Willis Machinery and Tools)

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GANG DRILL

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MULTIPLE SPINDLES

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CNC Turret Drilling Machine

Figure 22.29 A three-axis computer numerical control drilling machine. The turret holds as much as eight different tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.

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Work Holding for Drill Presses

Workpart can be clamped in a vise, fixture, or jig Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws Fixture - workholding device that is usually custom-designed for the particular workpart. The fixture can be designed to achieve higher accuracy in positioning the part, faster production rates, and greater operator convenience in use Drill jig similar to fixture but also provides a means of guiding the tool during drilling

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Drill Jig

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Milling
A machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the most versatile and widely used machining operations Other factors and terms: Milling is an interrupted cutting operation-the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit work during each revolution Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth" Machine tool called a milling machine
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Basic Types of Milling Operations

Figure 21.3 - Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling
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Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling

Peripheral milling or plain milling: Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter Face milling Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter

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Types of Milling
Peripheral Milling Slab milling Slotting Side milling Straddle milling Face milling Conventional face milling Partial face milling End milling Profile milling Pocket milling Surface contouring
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Slab Milling
The basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides

Figure 22.18 (a) slab milling

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Slotting
Width of cutter is less than workpiece width, creating a slot in the work

Figure 22.18 (b) slotting

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Side milling

Straddle milling

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Conventional Face Milling

Cutter overhangs work on both sides

Figure 22.20 (a) conventional face milling

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Milling Operations

Up milling or
Conventional milling

Down milling or
Climb milling

Cutter motion opposite and along feed direction

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Types of Face Milling

Conventional milling

Partial face milling

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End Milling
Cutter diameter is less than work width, so a slot is cut into part

Figure 22.20 - (c) end milling

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Profile Milling
Form of end milling in which the outside periphery of a flat part is cut

Figure 22.20 (d) profile milling

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Pocket Milling
Another form of end milling used to mill shallow pockets into flat parts

Figure 22.20 (e) pocket milling

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Surface Contouring
Ball-nose cutter (rather than square-end cutter) is fed back and forth across the work along a curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three dimensional surface form

Figure 22.20 (f) surface contouring

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Milling Cutter

N=v/D MRR = wdfr

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Milling Machines
Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the cutter and a table for fastening, positioning and feeding the workpart Types: Knee-and-column milling machine Universal milling machine Ram mill Bed type milling machine Planer type Tracer mills CNC milling machines
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Figure 22.23 (a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine Suitable for peripheral milling
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Figure 22.23 (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine Suitable for face milling
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Figure 22.24 (b) ram type knee-and-column machine; ram can be adjusted in and out, and toolhead can be swiveled
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Milling Machines

Universal milling machine

Simplex bed-type milling machine: rigid construction for mass production

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Additional Milling Machines

Figure 23.18 A computer numerical control, vertical-spindle milling machine. This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools. Source: Courtesy of Bridgeport Machines Division, Textron Inc.

Figure 23.19 Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three principal linear and two angular movements of machine components
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Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool capable of performing multiple machining operations under CNC control in one setup with minimal human attention Typical operations are milling and drilling Three, four, or five axes Other features: Automatic tool-changing Pallet shuttles Automatic workpart positioning

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Figure 22.26 - Universal machining center (Cincinnati Milacron); highly automated, capable of multiple machining operations under computer control in one setup with minimal human attention
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Figure 22.27 - CNC 4-axis turning center (Cincinnati Milacron); capable of turning and related operations, contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer control.
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Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning, milling, and drilling operations on a workpart General configuration of a turning center Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling cutter) can machine features into outside surface of part A conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined angular position and does not possess rotating tool spindles

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Figure 22.28 - Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter, (2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff
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