Dan Boneh
Introduction
Course Overview
Online Cryptography Course Dan Boneh
Dan Boneh
Welcome
Course objectives:
Learn how crypto primitives work
Learn how to use them correctly and reason about security
My recommendations:
Take notes
Pause video frequently to think about the material
Answer the in-video questions
Dan Boneh
Cryptography is everywhere
Secure communication:
web traffic: HTTPS
wireless traffic: 802.11i WPA2 (and WEP), GSM, Bluetooth
Encrypting files on disk: EFS, TrueCrypt
Content protection (e.g. DVD, Blu-ray): CSS, AACS
User authentication
and much much more
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Secure communication
no eavesdropping
no tampering
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Secure Sockets Layer / TLS
Two main parts
1. Handshake Protocol: Establish shared secret key
using public-key cryptography (2
nd
part of course)
2. Record Layer: Transmit data using shared secret key
Ensure confidentiality and integrity (1
st
part of course)
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Protected files on disk
Disk
File 1
File 2
Alice Alice
No eavesdropping
No tampering
Analogous to secure communication:
Alice today sends a message to Alice tomorrow
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Building block: sym. encryption
E, D: cipher k: secret key (e.g. 128 bits)
m, c: plaintext, ciphertext
Encryption algorithm is publicly known
Never use a proprietary cipher
Alice
E
m
E(k,m)=c
Bob
D
c
D(k,c)=m
k k
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Use Cases
Single use key: (one time key)
Key is only used to encrypt one message
encrypted email: new key generated for every email
Multi use key: (many time key)
Key used to encrypt multiple messages
encrypted files: same key used to encrypt many files
Need more machinery than for one-time key
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Things to remember
Cryptography is:
A tremendous tool
The basis for many security mechanisms
Cryptography is not:
The solution to all security problems
Reliable unless implemented and used properly
Something you should try to invent yourself
many many examples of broken ad-hoc designs
Dan Boneh
End of Segment
Dan Boneh
Introduction
What is cryptography?
Online Cryptography Course Dan Boneh
Dan Boneh
Crypto core
Secret key establishment:
Secure communication:
attacker???
k
k
confidentiality and integrity
m
1
m
2
Alice
Bob
Talking
to Alice
Talking
to Bob
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But crypto can do much more
Digital signatures
Anonymous communication
Alice
signature
Alice
Who did I
just talk to?
Bob
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Alice
But crypto can do much more
Digital signatures
Anonymous communication
Anonymous digital cash
Can I spend a digital coin without anyone knowing who I am?
How to prevent double spending?
Who was
that?
Internet
1$
(anon. comm.)
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Protocols
Elections
Private auctions
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Protocols
Elections
Private auctions
Secure multi-party computation
Goal: compute f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
Thm: anything that can done with trusted auth. can also
be done without
trusted
authority
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Crypto magic
Privately outsourcing computation
Zero knowledge (proof of knowledge)
Alice
search
query
What did she
search for?
results
I know the factors of N !!
proof
???
E[ query ]
E[ results ]
Alice
N=pq
Bob
N
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A rigorous science
The three steps in cryptography:
Precisely specify threat model
Propose a construction
Prove that breaking construction under
threat mode will solve an underlying hard problem
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End of Segment
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Introduction
History
Online Cryptography Course Dan Boneh
Dan Boneh
History
David Kahn, The code breakers (1996)
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Symmetric Ciphers
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Few Historic Examples (all badly broken)
1. Substitution cipher
k :=
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Caesar Cipher (no key)
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What is the size of key space in the substitution cipher
assuming 26 letters?
|| = 26
|| = 2
26
= 26! (26 factorial)
|| = 26
2
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How to break a substitution cipher?
What is the most common letter in English text?
X
L
E
H
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How to break a substitution cipher?
(1) Use frequency of English letters
(2) Use frequency of pairs of letters (digrams)
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An Example
UKBYBIPOUZBCUFEEBORUKBYBHOBBRFESPVKBWFOFERVNBCVBZPRUBOFERVNBCVBPCYYFVUFO
FEIKNWFRFIKJNUPWRFIPOUNVNIPUBRNCUKBEFWWFDNCHXCYBOHOPYXPUBNCUBOYNRVNIWN
CPOJIOFHOPZRVFZIXUBORJRUBZRBCHNCBBONCHRJZSFWNVRJRUBZRPCYZPUKBZPUNVPWPCYVF
ZIXUPUNFCPWRVNBCVBRPYYNUNFCPWWJUKBYBIPOUZBCUIPOUNVNIPUBRNCHOPYXPUBNCUB
OYNRVNIWNCPOJIOFHOPZRNCRVNBCUNENVVFZIXUNCHPCYVFZIXUPUNFCPWZPUKBZPUNVR
B 36
N 34
U 33
P 32
C 26
E
T
A
NC 11
PU 10
UB 10
UN 9
IN
AT
UKB 6
RVN 6
FZI 4
THE
digrams
trigrams
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2. Vigener cipher (16th century, Rome)
k = C R Y P T O C R Y P T O
m = W H A T A N I C E D A Y T O D A Y
C R Y P T
(+ mod 26)
c = Z Z Z J U C L U D T U N W G C Q S
suppose most common = H first letter of key = H E = C
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3. Rotor Machines (1870-1943)
Early example: the Hebern machine (single rotor)
A
B
C
.
.
X
Y
Z
K
S
T
.
.
R
N
E
E
K
S
T
.
.
R
N
N
E
K
S
T
.
.
R
key
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Rotor Machines (cont.)
Most famous: the Enigma (3-5 rotors)
# keys = 26
4
= 2
18
(actually 2
36
due to plugboard)
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4. Data Encryption Standard (1974)
DES: # keys = 2
56
, block size = 64 bits
Today: AES (2001), Salsa20 (2008) (and many others)
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End of Segment
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Introduction
Discrete Probability
(crash course, cont.)
Online Cryptography Course Dan Boneh
See also: http://en.wikibooks.org/High_School_Mathematics_Extensions/Discrete_Probability
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U: finite set (e.g. U = {0,1}
n
)
Def: Probability distribution P over U is a function P: U [0,1]
such that P(x) = 1
Examples:
1. Uniform distribution: for all xU: P(x) = 1/|U|
2. Point distribution at x
0
: P(x
0
) = 1, xx
0
: P(x) = 0
Distribution vector: ( P(000), P(001), P(010), , P(111) )
xU
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Events
For a set A U: Pr[A] = P(x) [0,1]
The set A is called an event
Example: U = {0,1}
8
A = { all x in U
such that lsb
2
(x)=11 } U
for the uniform distribution on {0,1}
8
: Pr[A] = 1/4
xA
note: Pr[U]=1
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The union bound
For events A
1
and A
2
Pr[ A
1
A
2
] Pr[A
1
] + Pr[A
2
]
Example:
A
1
= { all x in {0,1}
n
s.t lsb
2
(x)=11 } ; A
2
= { all x in {0,1}
n
s.t. msb
2
(x)=11 }
Pr[ lsb
2
(x)=11 or msb
2
(x)=11 ] = Pr[A
1
A
2
] + =
A
1
A
2
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Random Variables
Def: a random variable X is a function X:UV
Example: X: {0,1}
n
{0,1} ; X(y) = lsb(y)
{0,1}
For the uniform distribution on U:
Pr[ X=0 ] = 1/2 , Pr[ X=1 ] = 1/2
More generally:
rand. var. X induces a distribution on V: Pr[ X=v ] := Pr[ X
-1
(v) ]
lsb=1
0
1
lsb=0
U V
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The uniform random variable
Let U be some set, e.g. U = {0,1}
n
We write r U to denote a uniform random variable over U
for all aU: Pr[ r = a ] = 1/|U|
( formally, r is the identity function: r(x)=x for all xU )
R
Dan Boneh
Let r be a uniform random variable on {0,1}
2
Define the random variable X = r
1
+ r
2
Then Pr[X=2] =
Hint: Pr[X=2] = Pr[ r=11 ]
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Randomized algorithms
Deterministic algorithm: y A(m)
Randomized algorithm
y A( m ; r ) where r {0,1}
n
output is a random variable
y A( m )
Example: A(m ; k) = E(k, m) , y A( m )
A(m)
m
inputs outputs
A(m)
m R
R
R
Dan Boneh
End of Segment
Dan Boneh
Introduction
Discrete Probability
(crash course, cont.)
Online Cryptography Course Dan Boneh
See also: http://en.wikibooks.org/High_School_Mathematics_Extensions/Discrete_Probability
Dan Boneh
Recap
U: finite set (e.g. U = {0,1}
n
)
Prob. distr. P over U is a function P: U [0,1] s.t. P(x) = 1
A U is called an event and Pr[A] = P(x) [0,1]
A random variable is a function X:UV .
X takes values in V and defines a distribution on V
xU
xA
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Independence
Def: events A and B are independent if Pr[ A and B ] = Pr*A+ Pr[B]
random variables X,Y taking values in V are independent if
a,bV: Pr[ X=a and Y=b] = Pr[X=a] Pr[Y=b]
Example: U = {0,1}
2
= {00, 01, 10, 11} and r U
Define r.v. X and Y as: X = lsb(r) , Y = msb(r)
Pr[ X=0 and Y=0 ] = Pr[ r=00 ] = = Pr[X=0] Pr[Y=0]
R
Dan Boneh
Review: XOR
XOR of two strings in {0,1}
n
is their bit-wise addition mod 2
0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
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An important property of XOR
Thm: Y a rand. var. over {0,1}
n
, X an indep. uniform var. on {0,1}
n
Then Z := YX is uniform var. on {0,1}
n
Proof: (for n=1)
Pr[ Z=0 ] =
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The birthday paradox
Let r
1
, , r
n
U be indep. identically distributed random vars.
Thm: when n= 1.2 |U|
1/2
then Pr[ ij: r
i
= r
j
]
Example: Let U = {0,1}
128
After sampling about 2
64
random messages from U,
some two sampled messages will likely be the same
notation: |U| is the size of U
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|U|=10
6
# samples n
c
o
l
l
i
s
i
o
n
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
Dan Boneh
End of Segment
