Chapter 1

Introduction Statistics and Data

Analysis

Walpole,Probability and Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, 8th e., Pearson Edu.

Chap 1-1

Section 1
Introduction and Data Collection

Walpole,Probability and Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, 8th e., Pearson Edu.

Chap 1-2

Section Goals
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to:

Explain key definitions:

Population vs. Sample

Primary vs. Secondary Data

Parameter vs. Statistic

Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

Describe key data collection methods

Describe different sampling methods

Probability Samples vs. Nonprobability Samples

Numerical descriptive measures

Presenting data

Why a Manager Needs to

Know about Statistics
To know how to:

properly present information

draw conclusions about populations based

on sample information

improve processes

obtain reliable forecasts

Key Definitions

A population (universe) is the collection of all

items or things under consideration

A sample is a portion of the population

selected for analysis

A parameter is a summary measure that

describes a characteristic of the population

A statistic is a summary measure computed

from a sample to describe a characteristic of
the population

Population vs. Sample

Population
a b

Sample

cd

ef gh i jk l m n
o p q rs t u v w
x y

Measures used to describe

the population are called
parameters

gi
o

n
r

y
Measures computed from
sample data are called
statistics

Two Branches of Statistics

Descriptive statistics

Collecting, summarizing, and describing data

Inferential statistics

Drawing conclusions and/or making decisions

concerning a population based only on sample
data

Descriptive Statistics

Collect data

Present data

e.g., Survey

e.g., Tables and graphs

Characterize data

e.g., Sample mean =

n

Inferential Statistics

Estimation

e.g., Estimate the population

mean weight using the sample
mean weight

Hypothesis testing

e.g., Test the claim that the

population mean weight is 120
pounds

Drawing conclusions and/or making decisions

concerning a population based on sample results.

Why We Need Data

To provide input to survey

To provide input to study

To measure performance of service or

production process

To evaluate conformance to standards

To assist in formulating alternative courses of

action

To satisfy curiosity

Data Sources
Primary

Secondary

Data Collection

Data Compilation
Print or Electronic

Observation

Survey

Experimentation

Reasons for Drawing a Sample

Less time consuming than a census

Less costly to administer than a census

Less cumbersome and more practical to

administer than a census of the targeted
population

Types of Samples Used

Nonprobability Sample

Items included are chosen without regard to

their probability of occurrence

Probability Sample

Items in the sample are chosen on the basis

of known probabilities

Types of Samples Used

(continued)

Samples

Non-Probability
Samples

Judgement
Quota

Chunk
Convenience

Probability Samples

Simple
Random

Stratified

Systematic

Cluster

Probability Sampling

Items in the sample are chosen based on

known probabilities
Probability Samples

Simple
Random

Systematic

Stratified

Cluster

Simple Random Samples

Every individual or item from the frame has an

equal chance of being selected

Selection may be with replacement or without

replacement

Samples obtained from table of random

numbers or computer random number
generators

Systematic Samples

Decide on sample size: n

Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k

individuals: k=N/n

Randomly select one individual from the 1st

group

Select every kth individual thereafter

N = 64
n=8
k=8

First Group

Stratified Samples

Divide population into two or more subgroups (called

strata) according to some common characteristic

A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup,

with sample sizes proportional to strata sizes

Samples from subgroups are combined into one

Population
Divided
into 4
strata

Sample

Cluster Samples

Population is divided into several clusters,

each representative of the population

A simple random sample of clusters is selected

All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be

chosen from a cluster using another probability sampling
technique

Population
divided into
16 clusters.

Randomly selected
clusters for sample

Advantages and Disadvantages

Simple random sample and systematic sample

Stratified sample

Simple to use
May not be a good representation of the populations
underlying characteristics
Ensures representation of individuals across the
entire population

Cluster sample

More cost effective

Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the
same level of precision)

Types of Data
Data

Categorical

Numerical

Examples:

Marital Status
Political Party
Eye Color
(Defined categories)

Discrete
Examples:

Number of Children
Defects per hour
(Counted items)

Continuous
Examples:

Weight
Voltage
(Measured characteristics)

Types of Survey Errors

Coverage error or selection bias

Non response error or bias

People who do not respond may be different from those

who do respond

Sampling error

Exists if some groups are excluded from the frame and

have no chance of being selected

Variation from sample to sample will always exist

Measurement error

Due to weaknesses in question design, respondent

error, and interviewers effects on the respondent

Types of Survey Errors

(continued)

Coverage error

Non response error

Sampling error

Measurement error

Excluded from
frame
Follow up on
nonresponses
Random
differences from
sample to sample
Bad or leading
question

Section 2
Numerical Descriptive Measures

Walpole,Probability and Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, 8th e., Pearson Edu.

Chap 1-24

Section Goals
After completing this chapter, you should be able
to:

Compute and interpret the mean, median, and

mode for a set of data

Find the range, variance, standard deviation, and

coefficient of variation and know what these values
mean

Compute and explain the correlation coefficient

Use numerical measures along with graphs,

charts, and tables to describe data

Summary Measures
Describing Data Numerically

Central Tendency

Quartiles

Variation

Arithmetic Mean

Range

Median

Interquartile Range

Mode

Variance

Geometric Mean

Standard Deviation

Shape
Skewness

Coefficient of Variation

Measures of Central Tendency

Overview
Central Tendency

Arithmetic Mean

Median

Mode

X
i1

Geometric Mean
XG ( X1 X 2 Xn )1/ n

Midpoint of
ranked
values

Most
frequently
observed
value

Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean (mean) is the most

common measure of central tendency

For a sample of size n:

n

X
Sample size

X
i1

X1 X 2 Xn

n
Observed values

Arithmetic Mean
(continued)

The most common measure of central tendency

Mean = sum of values divided by the number of values
Affected by extreme values (outliers)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mean = 3
1 2 3 4 5 15

3
5
5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Mean = 4
1 2 3 4 10 20

4
5
5

Median

In an ordered array, the median is the middle

number (50% above, 50% below)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Median = 3

Median = 3

Not affected by extreme values

Finding the Median

The location of the median:

n 1
Median position
position in the ordered data
2

If the number of values is odd, the median is the middle number

If the number of values is even, the median is the average of
the two middle numbers

n 1
Note that
is not the value of the median, only the
2
position of the median in the ranked data

Mode

A measure of central tendency

Value that occurs most often
Not affected by extreme values
Used for either numerical or categorical data
There may may be no mode
There may be several modes

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Mode = 9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

No Mode

Review Example

Five houses on a hill by the beach

$2,000 K

House Prices:
$2,000,000
500,000
300,000
100,000
100,000

$500 K
$300 K

$100 K
$100 K

Review Example:
Summary Statistics
House Prices:
$2,000,000
500,000
300,000
100,000
100,000

Mean:

Median: middle value of ranked data

= $300,000

Mode: most frequent value

= $100,000

Sum 3,000,000

($3,000,000/5)
= $600,000

Which measure of location

is the best?

Mean is generally used, unless

extreme values (outliers) exist

Then median is often used, since

the median is not sensitive to
extreme values.

Example: Median home prices may be

reported for a region less sensitive to
outliers

Geometric Mean

Geometric mean

Used to measure the rate of change of a variable

over time

XG ( X1 X 2 Xn )

1/ n

Quartiles

Quartiles split the ranked data into 4 segments with

an equal number of values per segment
25%
Q1

25%

25%
Q2

25%
Q3

The first quartile, Q1, is the value for which 25% of the
observations are smaller and 75% are larger
Q2 is the same as the median (50% are smaller, 50% are
larger)
Only 25% of the observations are greater than the third
quartile

Quartile Formulas
Find a quartile by determining the value in the
appropriate position in the ranked data, where
First quartile position:

Q1 = (n+1)/4

Second quartile position: Q2 = (n+1)/2 (the median position)

Third quartile position:

Q3 = 3(n+1)/4

where n is the number of observed values

Quartiles

Example: Find the first quartile

Sample Data in Ordered Array: 11 12 13 16 16 17 18 21 22

(n = 9)
Q1 = is in the (9+1)/4 = 2.5 position of the ranked data
so use the value half way between the 2nd and 3rd values,
so

Q1 = 12.5
Q1 and Q3 are measures of noncentral location
Q2 = median, a measure of central tendency

Measures of Variation
Variation
Range

Interquartile
Range

Variance

Standard
Deviation

Coefficient
of Variation

Measures of variation give

information on the spread or
variability of the data values.

Same center,
different variation

Range

Simplest measure of variation

Difference between the largest and the smallest
observations:
Range = Xlargest Xsmallest

Example:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Range = 14 - 1 = 13

13 14

Disadvantages of the Range

Ignores the way in which data are distributed

7

10

11

12

Range = 12 - 7 = 5

10

11

12

Range = 12 - 7 = 5

Sensitive to outliers
1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5
Range = 5 - 1 = 4

1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,120
Range = 120 - 1 = 119

Interquartile Range

Can eliminate some outlier problems by using

the interquartile range

Eliminate some high- and low-valued

observations and calculate the range from the
remaining values

Interquartile range = 3rd quartile 1st quartile

= Q3 Q1

Interquartile Range
Example:
X

minimum

Q1

25%

12

Median
(Q2)
25%

30

25%

45

Q3

maximum

25%

57

Interquartile range
= 57 30 = 27

70

Variance

Average (approximately) of squared deviations of

values from the mean

Sample variance:
n

S2

(X
i 1

Where

X)

n 1

n X ( X i )
i 1

2
i

i 1

n(n 1)

X = arithmetic mean
n = sample size
Xi = ith value of the variable X

Standard Deviation

Most commonly used measure of variation

Shows variation about the mean
Has the same units as the original data

Sample standard deviation:

(X X)
i1

n -1

Calculation Example:
Sample Standard Deviation
Sample
Data (Xi) :

10

12

14

n=8
S

15

17

18

18

24

Mean = X = 16

(10 X)2 (12 X)2 (14 X)2 (24 X )2

n 1

(10 16)2 (12 16)2 (14 16)2 (24 16)2

8 1

126
7

4.2426

A measure of the average

scatter around the mean

Measuring variation
Small standard deviation

Large standard deviation

Comparing Standard Deviations

Data A
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20 21

Mean = 15.5
S = 3.338

20 21

Mean = 15.5
S = 0.926

20 21

Mean = 15.5
S = 4.570

Data B
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Data C
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Advantages of Variance and

Standard Deviation

Each value in the data set is used in the

calculation

Values far from the mean are given extra

weight
(because deviations from the mean are squared)

Coefficient of Variation

Measures relative variation

Always in percentage (%)

Shows variation relative to mean

Can be used to compare two or more sets of

data measured in different units

S
CV
X

100%

Comparing Coefficient
of Variation

Stock A:
Average price last year = $50
Standard deviation = $5

S
CVA
X

$5
100%
100% 10%

$50

Stock B:
Average price last year = $100
Standard deviation = $5

S
$5
100%
CVB
100% 5%

$100
X

Both stocks
have the same
standard
deviation, but
stock B is less
variable relative
to its price

Shape of a Distribution

Describes how data is distributed

Measures of shape

Symmetric or skewed

Left-Skewed

Symmetric

Right-Skewed

Mean < Median

Mean = Median

Median < Mean

Population Summary Measures

Population summary measures are called parameters

The population mean is the sum of the values in the

population divided by the population size, N
N

Where

X
i1

X1 X 2 XN

= population mean
N = population size
Xi = ith value of the variable X

Population Variance

Average of squared deviations of values from

the mean
N

Population variance:

Where

(X )
i1

= population mean
N = population size
Xi = ith value of the variable X

Population Standard Deviation

Most commonly used measure of variation

Shows variation about the mean
Has the same units as the original data

Population standard deviation:

2
(X

)
i
i1

The Empirical Rule

If the data distribution is bell-shaped, then

the interval:
1 contains about 68% of the values in
the population or the sample

68%

The Empirical Rule

2 contains about 95% of the values in

the population or the sample
3 contains about 99.7% of the values
in the population or the sample

95%

99.7%

The Sample Covariance

The sample covariance measures the strength of the

linear relationship between two variables (called
bivariate data)

The sample covariance:

n

cov ( X , Y )

( X X)( Y Y )
i1

n 1

Only concerned with the strength of the relationship

No causal effect is implied

Interpreting Covariance

Covariance between two random variables:

cov(X,Y) > 0

X and Y tend to move in the same direction

cov(X,Y) < 0

X and Y tend to move in opposite directions

cov(X,Y) = 0

X and Y are independent

Coefficient of Correlation

Measures the relative strength of the linear

relationship between two variables

Sample coefficient of correlation:

n

( X X)( Y Y )
i1

2
(
X

X
)
i
i1

2
(
Y

Y
)
i
i1

cov ( X , Y )

SX SY

Features of
Correlation Coefficient, r

Unit free

Ranges between 1 and 1

The closer to 1, the stronger the negative linear

relationship

The closer to 1, the stronger the positive linear

relationship

The closer to 0, the weaker any positive linear

relationship

Scatter Plots of Data with Various

Correlation Coefficients
Y

r = -1

r = -.6

X
Y

r = +1

r=0

r = +.3

r=0

Section 3
Presenting Data

Walpole,Probability and Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, 8th e., Pearson Edu.

Chap 1-64

Chapter Goals
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Create an ordered array and a stem-and-leaf display

Construct and interpret a frequency distribution, polygon,

and ogive

Construct a histogram

Create and interpret bar charts, pie charts, and scatter

diagrams

Present and interpret category data in bar charts and pie

charts

Describe appropriate and inappropriate ways to display

data graphically

Organizing and Presenting

Data Graphically

Data in raw form are usually not easy to use

for decision making

Some type of organization is needed

Table
Graph

Techniques reviewed here:

Ordered Array
Stem-and-Leaf Display
Frequency Distributions and Histograms
Bar charts and pie charts
Contingency tables

Tables and Charts for

Numerical Data
Numerical Data

Ordered Array

Stem-and-Leaf
Display

Frequency Distributions
and
Cumulative Distributions
Histogram

Polygon

Ogive

The Ordered Array

A sorted list of data:
Shows range (min to max)
Provides some signals about variability
within the range
May help identify outliers (unusual observations)
If the data set is large, the ordered array is
less useful

The Ordered Array

(continued)

Data in raw form (as collected):

24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38

Data in ordered array from smallest to largest:

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

A simple way to see distribution details in a

data set
METHOD: Separate the sorted data series
into leading digits (the stem) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)

Example
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Here, use the 10s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf

21 is shown as

38 is shown as

Example
(continued)

Data in ordered array:

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem

Leaves

1 4 4 6 7 7

0 2 8

Using other stem units

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

Round off the 10s digit to form the leaves

Stem

Leaf

613 would become

776 would become

12

...
1224 becomes

Using other stem units

(continued)

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

The completed stem-and-leaf display:

Data:
613, 632, 658, 717,
722, 750, 776, 827,
841, 859, 863, 891,
894, 906, 928, 933,
955, 982, 1034,
1047,1056, 1140,
1169, 1224

Stem
6

Leaves
136

2258

346699

13368

10

356

11

47

12

Tabulating Numerical Data:

Frequency Distributions
What is a Frequency Distribution?

A frequency distribution is a list or a table

containing class groupings (categories or

ranges within which the data falls) ...

and the corresponding frequencies with which

data falls within each grouping or category

Why Use Frequency Distributions?

A frequency distribution is a way to

summarize data

The distribution condenses the raw data

into a more useful form...

and allows for a quick visual interpretation

of the data

Class Intervals
and Class Boundaries

Each class grouping has the same width

Determine the width of each interval by
range
Width of int erval
number of desired class groupings

Use at least 5 but no more than 15 groupings

Class boundaries never overlap
Round up the interval width to get desirable
endpoints

Frequency Distribution Example

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly
selects 20 winter days and records the daily
high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30,
32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

Frequency Distribution Example

(continued)

Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Find range: 58 - 12 = 46

Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)

Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60
Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55

Count observations & assign to classes

Frequency Distribution Example

(continued)

Data in ordered array:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Percentage

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40

3
6
5

.15
.30
.25

15
30
25

40 but less than 50

50 but less than 60

4
2

.20
.10

20
10

Class

Graphing Numerical Data:

The Histogram

A graph of the data in a frequency distribution

is called a histogram

The class boundaries (or class midpoints)

are shown on the horizontal axis

the vertical axis is either frequency, relative

frequency, or percentage

Bars of the appropriate heights are used to

represent the number of observations within
each class

Histogram Example
Class
Midpoint Frequency

Class
10 but less than 20
20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60

15
25
35
45
55

3
6
5
4
2

(No gaps
between
bars)
Class Midpoints

Histograms in Excel

1
Select
Tools/Data Analysis

How Many Class Intervals?

Many (Narrow class intervals)

may yield a very jagged distribution

with gaps from empty classes
Can give a poor indication of how
frequency varies across classes

Few (Wide class intervals)

may compress variation too much and

yield a blocky distribution
can obscure important patterns of
variation.
(X axis labels are upper class endpoints)

Graphing Numerical Data:

The Frequency Polygon
Class
Midpoint Frequency

Class
10 but less than 20
20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60

15
25
35
45
55

3
6
5
4
2

(In a percentage
polygon the vertical axis
would be defined to
show the percentage of
observations per class)
Class Midpoints

Tabulating Numerical Data:

Cumulative Frequency
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class

Frequency Percentage

Cumulative Cumulative
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20

15

15

20 but less than 30

30

45

30 but less than 40

25

14

70

40 but less than 50

20

18

90

50 but less than 60

10

20

100

20

100

Total

Graphing Cumulative Frequencies:

The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)

Class
Less than 10
10 but less than 20
20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60

Lower
Cumulative
class
boundary Percentage
10
20
30
40
50
60

0
15
45
70
90
100

Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)

Scatter Diagrams

Scatter Diagrams are used for

bivariate numerical data

Bivariate data consists of paired

observations taken from two numerical
variables

The Scatter Diagram:

one variable is measured on the vertical
axis and the other variable is measured
on the horizontal axis

Scatter Diagram Example

Volume
per day

Cost per
day

23

125

26

140

29

146

33

160

38

167

42

170

50

188

55

195

60

200

Scatter Diagrams in Excel

1
Select the chart wizard

2
Select XY(Scatter) option,
then click Next

3
When prompted, enter the
data range, desired
legend, and desired
destination to complete
the scatter diagram

Tables and Charts for

Categorical Data
Categorical
Data

Graphing Data

Tabulating Data
Summary
Table

Bar
Charts

Pie
Charts

Pareto
Diagram

The Summary Table

Summarize data by category
Example: Current Investment Portfolio
Investment
Amount
Percentage
Type
(in thousands $)
(%)

(Variables are
Categorical)

Stocks
Bonds
CD
Savings

46.5
32.0
15.5
16.0

42.27
29.09
14.09
14.55

Total

110.0

100.0

Bar and Pie Charts

Bar charts and Pie charts are often used

for qualitative (category) data

Height of bar or size of pie slice shows

the frequency or percentage for each
category

Bar Chart Example

Current Investment Portfolio
Investment
Type

Amount

(in thousands $)

Percentage
(%)

Stocks
Bonds
CD
Savings

46.5
32.0
15.5
16.0

42.27
29.09
14.09
14.55

Total

110.0

100.0

Pie Chart Example

Current Investment Portfolio
Investment
Type

Amount

(in thousands $)

Percentage
(%)

Stocks
Bonds
CD
Savings

46.5
32.0
15.5
16.0

42.27
29.09
14.09
14.55

Total

110.0

100.0

Savings
15%
Stocks
42%

CD
14%

Bonds
29%

Percentages
are rounded to
the nearest
percent

Pareto Diagram

Used to portray categorical data

A bar chart, where categories are shown in

descending order of frequency

A cumulative polygon is often shown in the

same graph

Used to separate the vital few from the trivial

many

Pareto Diagram Example

45%

100%

40%

90%

80%

35%

70%
30%
60%
25%
50%
20%
40%
15%
30%
10%

20%

5%

10%

0%

0%
Stocks

Bonds

Savings

CD

cumulative % invested
(line graph)

% invested in each category (bar

graph)

Current Investment Portfolio

Tabulating and Graphing

Multivariate Categorical Data

Contingency Table for Investment Choices ($1000s)

Investment
Category

Investor A

Investor B

Investor C

Total

Stocks

46.5

55

27.5

129

Bonds
CD
Savings

32.0
15.5
16.0

44
20
28

19.0
13.5
7.0

95
49
51

Total

110.0

147

67.0

324

(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total,

percentages of the row totals, or percentages of the column totals)

Tabulating and Graphing

Multivariate Categorical Data
(continued)

Side by side bar charts

C o m p a rin g In v e s to rs
S avings
CD
B onds
S toc k s
0

10
Inves tor A

20

30
Inves tor B

40

50
Inves tor C

60

Side-by-Side Chart Example

Sales by quarter for three sales territories:

Principles of Graphical Excellence

Present data in a way that provides substance,

statistics and design
Communicate complex ideas with clarity,
precision and efficiency
Give the largest number of ideas in the most
efficient manner
Excellence almost always involves several
dimensions
Tell the truth about the data

Errors in Presenting Data

Using chart junk

Failing to provide a relative

basis in comparing data
between groups

Compressing or distorting the vertical axis

Providing no zero point on the vertical axis

Chart Junk
Bad Presentation

Good Presentation

Minimum Wage
1960: $1.00
1970: $1.60
1980: $3.10

$
4
2
0
1960

1990: $3.80

Minimum Wage

1970

1980

1990

No Relative Basis

listen

Bad Presentation
Freq.
300
200
100
0

As received by
students.

Good Presentation
%
30%

As received by
students.

20%
10%
FR SO

JR SR

0%

FR SO JR SR

FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

Compressing Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation
200

Good Presentation

Quarterly Sales
50

100

25

0
Q1 Q2

Q3 Q4

Quarterly Sales

Q1

Q2

Q3 Q4

No Zero Point On Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation

$Good Presentations
Monthly Sales

45

45

Monthly Sales

39
36

42

39
36

42

or

J F M A M J

60
40

Graphing the first six months of sales

20
0