Data and Computer
Communications
Chapter 5 Signal Encoding
Techniques
Signal Encoding Techniques
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Digital signal
discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
Each bit is a signal element
binary data encoded into signal elements
Some Terms
Unipolar - signal elements have the
same
sign
Polar - One logic state represented by
positive voltage, other by negative
duration or length of a bit
modulation rate in signal elements per
second
mark and space
Interpreting Digital Signals
Receiver needs to know
timing of bits - when they start and end
signal levels
factors affecting signal interpretation
signal to noise ratio
data rate
bandwidth
encoding scheme affects performance
Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
signal spectrum
clocking
error
detection
signal interference and noise immunity
cost and complexity
Encoding Schemes
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
voltage
constant during bit interval
no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
such as absence of voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one
more often, negative voltage for one value
and positive for the other
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
Non-return to zero, inverted on ones
constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
no transition denotes binary 0
example of differential encoding since
data is represented by changes rather than levels
more reliable detection of transition rather than level
easy to lose sense of polarity in twisted-pair line (for
NRZ-L)
NRZ Pros & Cons
Pros
easy to engineer
make good use of bandwidth
Cons
dc component
lack of synchronization capability
used for
magnetic recording
not often used for signal transmission
Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
Use more than two
levels
Bipolar-AMI
zero represented by no line signal
one represented by positive or negative pulse
One pulses alternately in polarity
no loss of sync if a long string of ones
long runs of zeros still a problem
no net dc component
lower bandwidth
easy error detection
Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
one represented by
absence of line signal
zero represented by alternating positive
and negative
no advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI
each used in some applications
Multilevel Binary Issues
synchronization with long runs of 0s or 1s
can insert additional bits, c.f. ISDN
scramble data (discussed later)
not as efficient as NRZ
each signal element only represents one bit
receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same
probability of bit error
Manchester Encoding
has transition in the middle of each bit period
transition serves as clock and data
low to high represents one
high to low represents zero
used by IEEE 802.3 (EthernetLAN)
Differential Manchester
Encoding
Mid-bit transition is clocking only
transition at start of bit period representing 0
no transition at start of bit period representing 1
this is a differential encoding scheme
used by IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring LAN)
Biphase Pros and Cons
Con
at least one transition per bit time and possibly two
maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
requires more bandwidth
Pros
synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
has no dc component
has error detection
Modulation Rate
Problems
Q1. Assume a stream of ten 1s. Encode the
stream using the following schemes:
NRZ-I, AMI, Manchester, Differential Manchester.
How many transitions (vertical lines) are there
for each scheme.
Q2. For the Manchester encoded binary stream
of the following page, extract the clock
information and the data sequence.
Problems
Scrambling
use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
these filling sequences must
produce enough transitions to sync
be recognized by receiver & replaced with original data
be same length as original, no rate penalty
design goals
have no dc component
have no long sequences of zero level line signal
have no reduction in data rate
give error detection capability
B8ZS and HDB3
B8ZS Substitution Rules:
Ifanoctetofallzerosoccursandthelastvoltage
pulseprecedingthisoctetwaspositive,thentheeight
zerosoftheoctetareencodedas000+0+.
Ifanoctetofallzerosoccursandthelastvoltage
pulseprecedingthisoctetwasnegative,thentheeight
zerosoftheoctetareencodedas000+0+.
#IftheAMIsignalisinvertedinthepreviousdiagram,
DrawtheB8ZSandHDB3signals.
thefourthzeroisreplacedwithacodeviolation.
successiveviolationsareofalternatepolarity
HDB3 Substitution Rules:
Number of Bipolar Pulses (ones)
since Last
Substitution
Polarity of Preceding Pulse
+
Odd
000000+
Even
+00+
-00-
Problems
Q3. Consider a stream of binary data consisting of a
long sequence of 1s, followed by a zero, followed by a
long sequence of 1s. Preceding bit and level is
indicated within parentheses. Draw the waveforms for
NRZI (high), AMI (1 as negative voltage), and pseudoternary (0 as negative voltage).
Q4. The AMI waveform representing a sequence
0100101011 is transmitted over a noisy channel. The
received waveform with a single error is shown in the
following page. Locate the error with justification.
Problems
Problems
Q5. For the received AMI bipolar sequence + - 0
+ - 0 - + which has one violation, construct two
possible transmitted pattern that might result in
the same received pattern.
Analog Data, Analog Signals
modulate carrier frequency with analog data
why modulate analog signals?
higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
types of modulation
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Analog
Modulation
Techniques
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Digital Data, Analog Signal
main use is
public telephone system
has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
use modem (modulator-demodulator)
encoding techniques
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
Modulation Techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying
encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
usually have one amplitude zero
susceptible
to sudden gain changes
inefficient
used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
very high speeds over optical fiber
Binary Frequency Shift
Keying
most common is binary FSK (BFSK)
two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
less susceptible to error than ASK
used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
high frequency radio
higher frequency on LANs using co-ax
Multiple FSK
each signalling
element represents more
than one bit
more than two frequencies used
more bandwidth efficient
more prone to error
MFSK
Phase Shift Keying
phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data
binary PSK
two phases represent two binary digits
differential PSK
phase shifted relative to previous transmission
rather than some constant reference signal
DPSK
Quadrature PSK
get more efficient use if
each signal
element represents more than one bit
e.g. shifts of /2 or (90o)
each element represents two bits
split input data stream in two & modulate onto
carrier & phase shifted carrier
can use 8 phase angles & more than one
amplitude
9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of
which have two amplitudes
QPSK and OQPSK
Modulators
QPSK
Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
bandwidth
ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
in presence of noise:
bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
Analog Data, Digital Signal
digitization
is conversion of analog data
into digital data which can then:
be transmitted using NRZ-L
be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
be converted to analog signal
analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
pulse code modulation
delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
sampling theorem:
If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information
in original signal
e.g. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample
per sec
Strictly: these are analog samples
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
so assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Companding
Delta Modulation
analog input is approximated by a
staircase function
can move up or down one level () at each
sample interval
has binary behavior
since function only moves up or down at each
sample interval
hence can encode each sample as single bit
1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
PCM verses Delta Modulation
DM has
simplicity compared to PCM
but has worse SNR
issue of bandwidth used
e.g. for good voice reproduction with PCM
want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
data compression
can improve on this
still growing demand for digital signals
use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
PCM
preferred to DM for analog signals
Problem
Q6. The analog waveform shown in the following
figure is to be delta modulated. The sampling
period and the step size are indicated by the
grid. The first DM output is also shown. Give the
DM output for the complete signal.
Problem
Summary
looked at signal encoding techniques
analog data, analog signal
digital data, analog signal
analog data, digital signal
