Variable Frequency Drive

What is a VFD?

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

A VFD can be used to control both
the speed and torque of a
standard induction AC electric
motor.
It varies both the frequency and
amplitude of the AC waveform
being delivered to the motor
saving money in electricity.
Basic components of a VFD:
Input section, draws AC electric
power from the utility, Rectifier
section, converts the AC into
DC power.
Inverter section, converts DC
back into a controllable AC
waveform.

Purpose of the VFD

VFDs help to limit demand
and electrical consumption
of motors by reducing the
amount of energy they
consume.
Standard motors are
constant speed and when
they are energized they run
at a 100% no matter the
load.
Soft Start
Only use energy you need

A VFD in a block diagram.

L

+
+

L1

C
Motor

L2
L3
_

_
+
_

Input Converter
(Diode Bridge)
+
_

DC Bus
(Filter)

Output Inverter
(IGBTs)

VFD Fundamentals
A variable frequency drive converts incoming 60 Hz
utility power into DC, then converts to a simulated
variable voltage, variable frequency output

AC

DC

RECTIFIER
(AC - DC)

50 Hz Power

INVERTER
(DC - AC)

Zero - 100 Hz

50 Hz

VFD
ABB

To
Motor
Zero - 100 Hz
Electrical Energy

VFD

AC

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Area Under The Square-Wave

Pulses
Approximates The Area Under
A Sine Wave

Voltage

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Frequency

How Often You Switch From Positive

Pulses To Negative Pulses Determines
The Frequency Of The Waveform

Voltage

Positive
DC Bus

Negative
DC Bus

RECTIFIER INVERTER

Frequency

Frequency = 30Hz

Frequency = 60Hz

DC to AC Converter
(Inverter)
DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by
switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so
as to generate AC voltage (or current)
output.
General block diagram
IDC
+
VDC

Iac

+
Vac

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC

Simple square-wave inverter (1)

To illustrate the concept of AC waveform

generation
SQUA RE-WA VE
INVERTER
T3

T1
D1

D3
+ VO -

V DC

IO
T4

T2
D2

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
S1

S3

S4

S2

D4

AC Waveform Generation
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF

for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1
VDC

VDC

S3

+ vO

t1

S4

t2

S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF

for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1
VDC

S3
t2

+ vO
S4

S2
-VDC

t3

AC Waveforms
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Vdc

-Vdc
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
V1

V1
3

V1
5

4VDC

3RD HARMONIC

5RD HARMONIC

Harmonics Filtering
DC SUPPLY

INVERTER

(LOW PASS) FILTER

LOAD

L
+
vO 1

BEFORE FILTERING
vO 1

+
vO 2

AFTER FILTERING
vO 2

Output of the inverter is chopped AC voltage with

zero DC component. It contain harmonics.

An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at

the inverter output to reduce the high frequency
harmonics.

In some applications such as UPS, high purity sine

wave output is required. Good filtering is a must.
In some applications such as AC motor drive,
filtering is not required.

Variable Voltage Variable

Frequency Capability
Vdc2

Higher input voltage

Higher frequency

Vdc1

Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1

T2

Output voltage frequency can be varied by

period of the square-wave pulse.
Output voltage amplitude can be varied by
varying the magnitude of the DC input
voltage.
Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction
motor drive

Output voltage harmonics/

distortion
Harmonics cause distortion on the output
voltage.
Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very
difficult to filter, due to the filter size and
high filter order. They can cause serious
voltage distortion.
Why need to consider harmonics?
Sinusoidal waveform quality.
Power Quality issue.
Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be derated.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a
measure to determine the quality of a
given waveform.

Half-bridge inverter (1)

S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF

+
VC1
Vdc

S1
V +
o

G
+
VC2
-

RL
S2

Vdc
2

S1 OFF
S2 ON

Also known as the inverter leg.

Basic building block for full bridge, three
phase and higher order inverters.
G is the centre point.
Both capacitors have the same value. Thus
the DC link is equally spilt into two.
The top and bottom switch has to be
complementary, i.e. If the top switch is
closed (on), the bottom must be off, and
vice-versa.

Single-phase, full-bridge
(1)
Full bridge (single phase) is built from two
half-bridge leg.
The switching in the second leg is delayed
by 180 degrees from the first leg.

LEG R

VRG
Vdc
2

LEG R'

+
+

Vdc
2

S1

Vdc

S3
Vo -

R'

+
Vdc
2

VR 'G
Vdc
2

Vdc
2

Vdc
2
Vo
Vdc

S4

S2

Vo V RG VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"
Vdc

THREE-PHASE INVERTER
Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is
delayed by 120 degrees.
A three-phase inverter with star
connected load is shown below

+Vdc
+
Vdc/2
G

S1

S3

+
Vdc/2

S5

iR

iY

S4

B
iB

S6

ZR

ia

S2

ib

ZY
N

ZB

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (1)

Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter

Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.

I.

Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (2)

Gating

signals, switching sequence and

line to negative voltages

Fig. 2 Waveforms of gating signals,

switching sequence, line to negative
voltages for six-step voltage source inverter.

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (3)
Switching Sequence:
561 (V1) 612 (V2) 123 (V3) 234 (V4)
345 (V5) 456 (V6) 561 (V1)
where, 561 means that S5, S6 and S1 are switched on

Fig. 3 Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step

voltage source inverter.

I.

Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (4)

Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)
Line to line voltages
Vab = VaN - VbN
Vbc = VbN - VcN
Vca = VcN - VaN
Phase voltages
Van = 2/3VaN - 1/3VbN - 1/3VcN
Vbn = -1/3VaN + 2/3VbN - 1/3VcN
Vcn = -1/3VaN - 1/3VbN + 2/3VcN

Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral

(phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (5)

Amplitude of line to line

voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)
Fundamental Frequency
Component (Vab)1

(Vab )1 (rms)

3 4 Vdc
6

Vdc 0.78Vdc

2 2

Harmonic Frequency Components (Vab)h

: amplitudes of harmonics decrease inversely
proportional to their harmonic order
(Vab )h (rms)
where,

0.78
Vdc
h

h 6n 1

(n 1, 2, 3,.....)

I.

Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI (6)

Characteristics of Six-step VSI

It is called six-step inverter because of the
presence of six steps in the line to neutral (phase)
voltage waveform
Harmonics of order three and multiples of three
are absent from both the line to line and the line to
neutral voltages and consequently absent from the
currents.
Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can
be controlled by only change of DC-link voltage
(Vdc)

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (1)
Objective of PWM
Control of inverter output voltage
Reduction of harmonics

Disadvantages of PWM
Increase of switching losses due to high PWM
frequency
Reduction of available voltage
EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

I.

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI)

B. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED VSI (2)
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.

10

Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.

I.

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI)

B. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED VSI (3)

Inverter output voltage

When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2
When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2
Control of inverter output voltage
PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of vtri
Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of vcontrol
Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency
of vcontrol
Modulation Index (m)

vcontrol
peak of (V A0 )1

,
vtri
Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of

VA0

II. PWM METHODS

A. SINE PWM (1)
THREE-PHASE

INVERTER

Fig. 6 Three-phase Sine PWM inverter.

II. PWM METHODS

A. Sine PWM (2)
Three-phase sine PWM waveforms
Frequency of vtri and vcontrol

Frequency of vtri = fs

Frequency of vcontrol = f1

where, fs = PWM frequency

f1 = Fundamental frequency

Inverter output voltage

When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

where, VAB = VA0 VB0
VBC = VB0 VC0
VCA = VC0 VA0

Fig. 7 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.

II. PWM METHODS

A. SINE PWM (3)
Amplitude modulation ratio (ma)
ma

peak

amplitude of vcontrol
peak value of

amplitude of vtri
Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of

(V A0 )1

VA0

Frequency modulation ratio (mf)

mf

fs
, where, fs PWM frequency and f1 fundamental frequency
f1

mf should be an odd integer

if mf is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at
output voltage
if mf is not odd, DC component may exist and even
harmonics are present at output voltage
mf should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM
inverter
An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are
suppressed

Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM)
Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Carrier waveform

1
Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t2

t3 t4 t5

Vdc
2

Triangulation
method
(Natural
sampling)
Amplitudes of the triangular wave
(carrier) and sine wave (modulating)
are
compared
to
obtain
PWM
waveform.
Simple
analogue
comparator can be used.
Basically an analogue method. Its
digital version, known as REGULAR
sampling is widely used in industry.

Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Carrier waveform

1
Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t 2

t 3 t 4 t5

Vdc
2

Modulation Index (Modulation Depth) M I :

MI

Amplitude of the modulating waveform

Amplitude of the carrier waveform

Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio) M R ( p)

MR p

Frequency of the carrier waveform

Frequency of the modulating waveform

Bipolar Switching

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

1
Vdc
2
0

Vdc
2

t0 t1 t2

t3 t4 t5

Carrier waveform

Unipolar switching
1
A

Carrier waveform B

(a)
S1
(b)
S3
(c)

V pwm

(d)

Unipolar switching scheme

Bipolar PWM switching

modulating
waveform

carrier
waveform

kth
pulse

1k

2k

Three-phase harmonics
For three-phase inverters, there is
significant advantage if MR is chosen to be:
Odd: All even harmonic will be
eliminated from the pole-switching
waveform.
triplens (multiple of three (e.g.
3,9,15,21, 27..):
All triplens harmonics will be eliminated
from the line-to-line output voltage.
By observing the waveform, it can be seen
that with odd MR, the line-to-line voltage
shape looks more sinusoidal.
As can be noted from the spectra, the
phase voltage amplitude is 0.8
(normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage
amplitude is square root three of phase
voltage due to the three-phase relationship

Inverter out with and

without Dead band

Three phase inverter

with RL load

It is desirable to have MR as large as

possible.

This will push the harmonic at higher

frequencies on the spectrum. Thus
filtering requirement is reduced.
Although the voltage THD improvement
is not significant, but the current THD will
improve greatly because the load
normally has some current filtering
effect.
However, higher MR has side effects:
Higher switching frequency: More losses.
Pulse width may be too small to be
constructed. Pulse dropping may be
required.