Chapter 6
Photodetectors
Content
Physical Principles of Photodiodes
pin, APD
Photodetectors characteristics (Quantum efficiency,
Responsivity, S/N)
Noise in Photodetector Circuits
Photodiode Response Time
Photodiodes structures
Photodetectors
These are Opto-electric devices i.e. to convert the
optical signal back into electrical impulses.
The light detectors are commonly made up of
semiconductor material.
When the light strikes the light detector, a
current is produced in the external circuit
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Photodetectors
Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted when it
emerges from the end of the fiber, the photodetector must
meet following strict performance requirements.
A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength range of the
received light signal
A minimum addition of noise to the signal
A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
Be insensitive to temperature variations
Be compatible with the physical dimensions of the fiber
Have a Reasonable cost compared to other system components
Have a long operating lifetime
Photodetectors
Some important parameters while discussing photodetectors:
Quantum Efficiency
It is the ratio of primary electron-hole pairs created by incident
photon to the photon incident on the diode material.
Detector Responsivity
*This is the ratio of output current to input optical power.
Hence this is the efficiency of the device.
Spectral Response Range
This is the range of wavelengths over which the device
will operate.
Noise Characteristics
The level of noise produced in the device is critical to its
operation at low levels of input light.
Response Time
This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond
to variations in the input light intensity.
Photodetectors
Types of Light Detectors
PN Photodiode
PIN Photodiode
Avalanche Photodiode
PIN photodiode
InGaAs avalanche photodiode
Photodetectors
Photodetector materials
Operating Wavelength Ranges for Several Different Photodetector Materials
InGaAs is used most commonly for both long-wavelength
pin and avalanche photodiodes
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
Schematic diagram of a reverse biased pn junction photodiode
Photocurrent is dependent on number
SiO2
Electrode
AR
Electrode
coating
W
net
allow excess carriers in the sample to
and become collected by the
Netleave
space charge across the diode in
ph
of EHP and drift velocity.
The electrode do not inject carriers but
h +
h v > Eg
eN
Depletion
region
battery.
the depletion region. Nd and Na are the
donor and acceptor concentrations in
eN
the p and n sides.
The field in the depletion region
a
E
(x )
max
out
Principle of pn junction photodiode
(a) Reversed biased p+n
junction photodiode.
Annular electrode to allow
photon to enter the device.
Antireflection coating (Si3N4) to
reduce the reflection.
The p+-side thickness < 1 m.
(b) Net space charge
distribution, within SCL.
(c) The E field across depletion
region.
15
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
A generic photodiode.
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
Variation of photon flux with distance.
A physical diagram showing the depletion region.
A plot of the the flux as a function of distance.
There is a loss due to Fresnel reflection at the surface, followed by the
decaying exponential loss due to absorption.
The photon penetration depth x0 is defined as the depth at which the
-1
photon flux is reduced to e of its surface value.
Photodetectors
RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent
An EHP is photogenerated at x = l. The electron and the hole drift in opposite directions with drift velocities vh
and ve.
The electron arrives at timeVtelectron = (L-l )/ve and the hole arrives at time thole = l/vh.
Iphoto(t)
e vh
L
e v h e ve
L
L
iphoto(t)
Semiconductor
h+
telectron
velectron
vhole
thole
L l
l
l
Area=Charge=e
t
0
e v h /L
e v e /L
x
h+
i(t)
ielectron(t)
telectron
thole
photocurrent
thole
ihole(t)
t
Photodetectors
RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent
As the electron and hole drift, each generates ielectron(t) and ihole(t).
The total photocurrent is the sum of hole and electron photocurrents each lasting a duration th and
respectively.
te t
L l
ve
and
th t
l
vh
Transit time
Work done e E dx V ie t dt
ie t
e ve
; t te
L
ih t
e vh
; t th
L
te
th
te
Qcollected ie t dt ih t dt e
V
L
ve
dx
dt
Photocurrent
The collected charge is not 2e but just one
electron.
If a charge qis being drifted with a velocity vd(t) by a field between two biased electrodes separated
by L, the motion of q generates an external current
given by
e vd t
i (t )
; t t transit
L
Ramos Theorem
Photodetectors
Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials
Absorbed Photon create Electron-Hole Pair.
1.24
g [ m]
E g [eV ]
Cut-off wavelength vs. Energy
bandgap
Incident photons become absorbed as they travel in the semiconductor and light intensity decays
exponentially with distance into the semiconductor.
I ( x ) I 0 e x
Absorption coefficient
The pin Photodiode
The pn junction photodiode has
two drawbacks:
Depletion layer capacitance is not
sufficiently small to allow
photodetection at high modulation
frequencies (RC time constant
limitation).
Narrow SCL (at most a few microns)
long wavelengths incident
photons are absorbed outside SCL
low QE
The pin photodiode can significantly
reduce these problems.
Intrinsic layer has less doping and wider region (5 50 m).
24
Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode
Operation of a p-i-n photodiode.
(b) Energy band diagram under reverse bias.
(a) Cross-section view of a p-i-n photodiode.
(c) Carrier absorption characteristics.
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Reverse-biased p-i-n photodiode
pin photodiode circuit
pin energy-band diagram
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Schematic diagram of pin photodiode
In contrast to pn junction
SiO2
Electrode
E(x)
Electrode
p+
built-in-field is uniform
iSi
E0
n+
net
eN
h > Eg
+ e
x
Iph
eN a
Vr
Small depletion layer capacitance gives high modulation frequencies.
High Quantum efficiency.
Vout
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
A reverse biased pin photodiode is illuminated with a short wavelength photon that is absorbed very near the surface.
The photogenerated electron has to diffuse to the depletion region where it is swept into the i- layer and drifted across.
i Si
Diffusion
h > E
Drift
Vr
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
pindiode
(a)Thestructure;
(b)equilibriumenergybanddiagram;
(c)energybanddiagramunderreversebias.
Physical Principles of Photodiodes
The Pin Photodetector
The device structure consists of p and n semiconductor
regions separated by a very lightly n-doped intrinsic (i)
region.
In normal operation a reverse-bias voltage is applied across
the device so that no free electrons or holes exist in the
intrinsic region.
Incident photon having energy greater than or equal to the
bandgap energy of the semiconductor material, give up its
energy and excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band
pin Photodetector
The high electric field present in the depletion region causes photo-generated carriers to
Separate and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This give rise to a current
Flow in an external circuit, known as photocurrent.
The Pin Photodetector
Photocarriers:
Incident photon, generates free (mobile) electron-hole pairs
in the intrinsic region. These charge carriers are known as
photocarriers, since they are generated by a photon.
Photocurrent:
The electric field across the device causes the photocarriers
to be swept out of the intrinsic region, thereby giving rise to
a current flow in an external circuit. This current flow is
known as the photocurrent.
Energy-Band diagram for a pin photodiode
The Pin Photodetector
An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the
conduction band only if it has an energy that is greater than or
equal to the bandgap energy
**Beyond a certain wavelength, the light will not be
absorbed by the material since the wavelength of a photon
is inversely proportional to its energy
Thus, a particular semiconductor material can be used only
over a limited wavelength range.
The upper wavelength c cutoff is determined by the
band-gap energy Eg of the material.
As the charge carriers flow through the material some of
them recombine and disappear.
The charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for electrons
and holes before recombining. This distance is known as
diffusion length
The time it take to recombine is its life time n or p
respectively.
Ln = Dn n
and Lp = Dp p
Where Dn and Dp are the diffusion coefficients for
electrons and holes respectively.
Photo current
As a photon flux penetrates through the semiconductor, it will
be absorbed.
If Pin is the optical power falling on the photo detector at x=0
and P(x) is the power level at a distance x into the material
then the incremental change be given as
dP x s P x dx
where s() is the photon absorption coefficient at a
wavelength . So that
P x Pin exp s x
Photocurrent
Optical power absorbed, P(x) in the depletion region can be written in
terms of incident optical power, P0 :
P( x) Pin (1 e
s ( ) x
Absorption coefficient s ( ) strongly depends on wavelength. The upper
wavelength cutoff for any semiconductor can be determined by its energy
gap as follows:
1.24
c ( m )
E g (eV)
[6-1]
[6-2]
Taking entrance face reflectivity into consideration, the absorbed power in
the width of depletion region, w, becomes:
(1 R f ) P( w) Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
Optical Absorption Coefficient
Absorption Coefficient
Absorption
coefficient is a
material property.
Most of the
photon absorption
(63%) occurs over
a distance 1/ (it
is called
penetration
depth )
Photon energy (eV)
5 4
1108
Ge
1107
0.9
0.8
0.7
In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36
In0.53Ga0.47As
Si
1106
GaAs
(m-1)
InP
1105
a-Si:H
1104
1103
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength ( m)
Absorption43
coefficient ( ) vs. wavelength ( ) for various semiconductors
(Data selectively collected and combined from various sources.)
Photodetectors
Absorption
Coefficient and Photodiode Materials
Absorption
The indirect-gap materials are shown with a broken line.
Photon energy (eV)
5 4
0.9
0.8
0.7
1 10
Ge
1 10
1 10
In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36
In0.53Ga0.47As
Si
-1
Absorption Coefficient (m )
GaAs
InP
1 10
a-Si:H
1 10
1 10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Wavelength (mm)
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Absorption Coefficient
Direct bandgap semiconductors
(GaAs, InAs, InP, GaSb, InGaAs,
GaAsSb), the photon absorption
does not require assistant from
lattice vibrations. The photon is
absorbed and the electron is
excited directly from the VB to CB
without a change in its k-vector
(crystal momentum k), since
photon momentum is very small.
k CB k VB
E
CB
Ec
Direct
Bandgap
Eg
Photon
Ev
VB
(a) GaAs (Direct bandgap)
(a) Photon absorption in a direct band
photon momentum in0an indirect bandgap semiconductor
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentic
Absorption coefficient for direct bandgap semiconductors rise sharply with decreasing wavelength from g
(GaAs and InP).
46
Absorption Coefficient
E
Indirect bandgap
CB
semiconductors
(Si and Ge),
the photon absorption
Indirect Bandgap, E
Ec
CB
requires
from
lattice
Direct Bandgap assistant
Eg
Photon
Ec
Photon
E v (phonon). If K is
vibrations
Ev
wave vectorVB of lattice wave,
VB
Phonon
then
K represents the
k
k
k
k
momentum associated with
(a) GaAs (Direct bandgap)
(b) Si (Indirect bandgap)
lattice vibration K is a
phonon
momentum.
k
phonon momentum K
CB
VB
(a) Photon absorption in a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) Photon absorption
in an indirect bandgap semiconductor (VB, valence band; CB, conduction band)
Thus the probability of photon absorption is not as high as in a direct transition and the g is not as sharp as
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
for direct bandgap semiconductors.
47
Photodetectors
Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials
Photon absorption in
Photon absorption in
a direct bandgap semiconductor.
an indirect bandgap semiconductor
CB
Indirect Bandgap
EC
CB
Eg
Direct Bandgap
Photon
Eg
EC
EV
Photon
EV
VB
VB
Phonons
k
Responsivity
The primary photocurrent resulting from absorption is:
q
Ip
Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
h
[6-3]
Quantum Efficiency:
# of electron - hole photogenerated pairs
# of incident photons
IP / q
Pin / h
[6-4]
Responsivity:
IP
q
Pin
h
[A/W]
[6-5]
Responsivity vs. wavelength
Typical Silicon P-I-N Diode Schematic
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Junction capacitance of pin
C dep
0 r A
Small capacitance: High modulation frequency
RCdep time constant is 50 psec.
Electric field of biased pin
Vr Vr
E E0
W W
Response time
t drift
vd
v d d E
The speed of pin photodiodes are invariably limited by the transit time of photogenerated carriers across the i-Si layer.
For i-Si layer of width 10 m, the drift time is about is about 0.1 nsec.
Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Drift velocity vs. electric field for holes and electrons in Silicon.
10
Electron
1
Driftvelocity(msec )
10
10
10
Hole
10
10
1
Electricfield(Vm )
10
10
Example
Bandgapandphotodetection
(a)Determinethemaximumvalueoftheenergygapwhichasemiconductor,usedasaphotoconductor,canhaveifitistobesensitivetoyellowlight
(600nm).
2
2
2
(b)Aphotodetectorwhoseareais510 cm isirradiatedwithyellowlightwhoseintensityis20mWcm .Assumingthateachphotongenerates
oneelectronholepair,calculatethenumberofpairsgeneratedpersecond.
Solution
(a)
(b)
Given,=600nm,weneedEph=h=Egsothat,
34
8
1
9
Eg=hc/ =(6.62610 Js)(310 ms )/(60010 m)=2.07eV
2 2
3
2
Area=510 cm andIlight=2010 W/cm .
Thereceivedpoweris
2 2
3
2
3
P=Area Ilight=(510 cm )(2010 W/cm )=10 W
Nph=numberofphotonsarrivingpersecond=P/Eph
3
19
=(10 W)/(2.0596021810 J/eV)
1
=2.9787 photonss
=2.9787 EHPs .
Example
BandgapandPhotodetection
(c)FromtheknownenergygapofthesemiconductorGaAs(Eg=1.42eV),calculatetheprimarywavelengthofphotonsemittedfromthiscrystalasa
resultofelectronholerecombination.Isthiswavelengthinthevisible?
(d)WillasiliconphotodetectorbesensitivetotheradiationfromaGaAslaser?Why?
Solution
(c)ForGaAs,Eg=1.42eVandthecorrespondingwavelengthis
=hc/Eg=(6.62610
34
8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.42eV610 J/eV)
=873nm(invisibleIR)
ThewavelengthofemittedradiationduetoEHPrecombinationis873nm.
(d)
ForSi,Eg=1.1eVandthecorrespondingcutoffwavelengthis,
g=hc/Eg=(6.62610
34
8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.1eV610 J/eV)
=1120nm
Sincethe873nmwavelengthisshorterthanthecutoffwavelengthof1120nm,theSiphotodetectorcandetectthe873nmradiation(Put
differently,thephotonenergycorrespondingto873nm,1.42eV,islargerthantheEg,1.1eV,ofSiwhichmeanthattheSiphotodetectorcan
indeeddetectthe873nmradiation)
Example
Absorption coefficient
(a)
If d is the thickness of a photodetector material, Io is the intensity of the incoming radiation, the number of photons absorbed per unit volume of
sample is
n ph
I 0 1 exp( d )
d h
Solution
(a)IfI0istheintensityofincomingradiation(energyflowingperunitareapersecond),I0exp( d)isthetransmittedintensitythroughthe
specimenwiththicknessdandthusI0exp( d)istheabsorbedintensity
Example
(b) What is the thickness of a Ge and In0.53Ga0.47As crystal layer that is needed for absorbing 90% of the incident radiation at 1.5 m?
5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
(b)
5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
1 exp( d ) 0.9
1
1
1
1
6
d ln
ln
4
.
428
10
m 4.428 m
5
1 0.9 5.2 10 1 0.9
5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
1
1
6
ln
3
.
07
10
m 3.07 m
5
7.5 10 1 0.9
Example
InGaAspinPhotodiodes
ConsideracommercialInGaAspinphotodiodewhoseresponsivityisshowninfig.Itsdarkcurrentis5nA.
Whatopticalpoweratawavelengthof1.55mwouldgiveaphotocurrentthatistwicethedarkcurrent?WhatistheQEofthe
photodetectorat1.55m?
Whatwouldbethephotocurrentiftheincidentpowerinawasat1.3m?WhatistheQEat1.3moperation?
Responsivity(A/W)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
800
1000
1200
1400
Wavelength(nm)
1600
1800
The responsivity of an InGaAs pin photodiode
Solution
(a)
6
At =1.5510 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurvewehaveR0.87A/W.Fromthedefinitionof
responsivity,
I ph
Photocurrent ( A)
R
Incident Optical Power (W ) P0
wehave
2 I dark 2 5 10 9 ( A)
P0
11.5 nW
R
R
0.87 A / W )
I ph
Fromthedefinitionsofquantumefficiencyandresponsivity,
e
e
h
hc
hcR (6.62 10 34 J sec)(3 108 m / s )(0.87 A / W )
0.70 (70 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.55 10 m )
1
1
1
1
Notethefollowingdimensionalidentities:A=Cs andW=Js sothatAW =CJ .Thus,responsivityintermsofphotocurrentperunitincident
opticalpowerisalsochargecollectedperunitincidentenergy.
Solution
(b)
6
At =1.310 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurve,R =0.82A/W.
SincePoisthesameand11.5nWasin(a),
I ph R P0 (0.82 A / W )(1.15 nW ) 9.43 nA
TheQEat =1.3mis
hcR (6.62 10 34 J sec)( 3 108 m / s )(0.82 A / W )
0.78 (78 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.3 10 m )
The Pin Photodetector
Generic Operating Parameters of an InGaAs
pin Photodiode
Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Schematic diagram of typical Si APD.
Electrode
SiO2
Antireflectioncoating
n
p
Avalanchebreakdown
Substrate
Substrate
Electrode
Electrode
Si APD structure without a guard ring
Guardring
More practical Si APD
Breakdown voltage around periphery is higher and avalanche is
+
confined more to illuminated region (n p junction).
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
APDs internally multiply the
primary photocurrent before it
enters to following circuitry.
In order to carrier multiplication
take place, the photogenerated
carriers must traverse along a
high field region. In this region,
photogenerated electrons and
holes gain enough energy to
ionize bound electrons in VB
upon colliding with them. This
multiplication is known as
impact ionization. The newly
created carriers in the presence of
high electric field result in more
ionization called avalanche
effect.
Optical radiation
Reach-Through APD structure (RAPD)
showing the electric fields in depletion
region and multiplication region.
Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
Iphoto
SiO2
Electrode
h > Eg
h+
n+ p
Impact ionization processes resulting avalanche multiplication
p+
Electrode
net
Avalancheregion
E c
E v
E ( x)
x
Absorption
region
Avalanche region
Impact of an energetic electron's kinetic energy excites VB electron to the CV.
Avalanche Photodiodes
Ionization rate
The average number of electron-hole pairs created by a carrier
per unit distance traveled is called the ionization rate.
Most materials exhibit different electron ionization rates and
hole ionization rates .
The ratio k = / of the two ionization rates is a
measure of the photodetector performance.
Only silicon has a significant difference between electron and
hole ionization rates.
Responsivity of APD
The multiplication factor (current gain) M for all carriers generated in the
photodiode is defined as:
IM
M
Ip
[6-6]
Where I M is the average value of the total multiplied output current & I P
is the primary photocurrent.
The responsivity of APD can be calculated by considering the current gain
as:
APD
M 0 M
h
[6-7]
Current gain (M) vs. Voltage for different optical
wavelengths
Generic Operating Parameters of an InGaAs Avalanche
Photodiode
Photodetector Noise & S/N
Detection of weak optical signal requires that the photodetector and its
following amplification circuitry be optimized for a desired signal-to-noise
ratio.
It is the noise current which determines the minimum optical power level
that can be detected. This minimum detectable optical power defines the
sensitivity of photodetector. That is the optical power that generates a
photocurrent with the amplitude equal to that of the total noise current
(S/N=1)
S
signal power from photocurrent
N photodetector noise power amplifier noise power
Signal Calculation
Consider the modulated optical power signal P(t) falls on the photodetector
with the form of:
P (t ) P0 [1 ms (t )]
Where s(t) is message electrical signal and m is modulation index.
Therefore the primary photocurrent is (for pin photodiode M=1):
MP(t ) I P [DC value] i p (t )[AC current ]
h
i ph
[6-8]
[6-9]
The root mean square signal current is then:
is
ip
ip M 2 s
2
m 2 I P2
2
[6-9]
For sinusoidal variation of
modulation index m
[6-10]
Noise Sources in Photodetecors
The principal noises associated with photodetectors are :
1- Quantum (Shot) noise: arises from statistical nature of the production
and collection of photo-generated electrons upon optical illumination. It has
been shown that the statistics follow a Poisson process.
2- Dark current noise: is the current that continues to flow through the
bias circuit in the absence of the light. This is the combination of
i) bulk dark current, which is due to thermally generated electrons and
holes in the pn junction, and the
ii) surface dark current, due to surface defects, bias voltage and surface
area.
Surface dark current is also known as surface leakage current. It depends
on surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage and surface area. The surface
current can be reduced by using the guard rings so that the surface current
should not be allowed to flow through the load resistor
In order to calculate the total noise present in photodetector, we should sum
up the root mean square of each noise current by assuming that those are
uncorrelated.
Total photodetector noise current=quantum noise current +bulk dark
current noise + surface current noise
Noise calculation (1)
Quantum noise current (lower limit on the sensitivity):
ishot shot 2qI P BM F ( M )
2
B: Bandwidth, F(M) is the noise figure and generally is F ( M ) M
Bulk dark current noise:
i DB
Surface dark current noise:
i DS
0 x 1.0
2
DB
2qI D BM 2 F ( M )
[6-12]
Note that for pin photodiode
I D is bulk dark current
[6-11]
IL
M 2 F (M ) 1
is the surface leakage current.
2
DS
2qI L B
[6-13]
Noise calculation (2)
Since the dark current and the signal current are totally uncorrelated so the
total rms photodetector noise current is:
iN
N iQ
i DB
i DS
2q ( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B
[6-14]
The thermal noise of amplifier connected to the photodetector is:
[Assumption: amplifier input impedance is much greater than the load
resistor]
iT
4k BTB
RL
[6-15]
RL input resistance of amplifier, and k B 1.38 10 23 JK -1is Boltzmann cte.
S/N Calculation
Having obtained the signal and total noise, the signal-to-noise-ratio can be
written as:
2
iP M 2
N 2q( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B 4k B TB / RL
[6-16]
Since the noise figure F(M) increases with M, there always exists an
optimum value of M that maximizes the S/N. For sinusoidally modulated
x
signal with m=1 and F ( M ) M :
x2
opt
2qI L 4k B T / R L
xq ( I P I D )
[6-17]
Assignment
Determine the expression in the last
equation from S/N ratio by differentiating
6.16 w.r.t. M and equating it equal to zero.
Detector Response Time
The response time of photodiode together with its
output circuit depends mainly on the following
three factors:
1.The transit time of the photocarriers in
the depletion region.
2.The diffusion time of the photocarriers
generated outside the depletion region.
3.The RC time constant of the photodiode
and its associated circuit.
Reverse-biased pin photodiode
Schematic representation of a reversed biased pin photodiode
Depletion Layer Photocurrent
To understand the frequency response of the photodiodes,consider the fig.
wherein Light enters the device through p layer,and produces electron-hole
pairs as it is absorbed in the semiconducting material.
Those electron-hole pairs that are generated in the depletion region or within
the diffusion length of it will be separated by the reverse bias voltage
induced electric field, leading to a current flow in the external circuit.
Under steady state, the total current flowing through the depletion layer is
Jtotal = Jdr + Jdiff
where,Jdr is the drift current arising from the carriers generated inside the
depletion region and Jdiff is the diffusion current density due to the carriers
generated outside the depletion region (in n or p side) and diffuses into the
reverse bias region. The drift current density is(A=Area of the Photodiode)
A
P 1 R
J dr
o
Ip
q o 1 e
in
s w
Ah
Where o is the incident photon flux per unit area
Depletion Layer Photocurrent
The surface p layer of a pin photodiode is normally
very thin. The diffusion current is mainly due to the
holes diffusion from bulk n region. The hole diffusion
in the material can be determined by the one
dimensional diffusion equation
2 pn pn pno
Dp
G x 0
2
x
p
Where Dp is the hole diffusion constant, pn is the hole
concentration in the n-type material, p is the excess
hole life time, pno is the equilibrium hole density, and
G(x) is the electron-hole generation rate.
Depletion Layer Photocurrent
Diffusion current:
Solving the diffusion equation using the electron hole generation rate
G ( x) o s e s x
The diffusion current density is given as [Assignment: problem 6.10]
J diff
s L p s x
Dp
q o
e
qpno
1 s Lp
Lp
The total current density can be written as
J tot
Dp
e s x
q o 1
qpno
1 s L p
Lp
Detector Response Time
Detector Response Time
The response time of photodiode together with its
output circuit depends mainly on the following
three factors:
1.The transit time of the photocarriers in
the depletion region.
2.The diffusion time of the photocarriers
generated outside the depletion region.
3.The RC time constant of the photodiode
and its associated circuit.
Photodetector Response Time
The response time of a photo detector with its output circuit depends
mainly on the following three factors:
1- The transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region. The transit
time t d depends on the carrier drift velocity v d and the depletion layer
width w, and is given by:
w
td
vd
[6-18]
2- Diffusion time of photocarriers outside depletion region.
3- RC time constant of the circuit. The circuit after the photodetector acts
like RC low pass filter with a passband given by:
1
B
2RT CT
RT Rs || RL and CT C a C d
[6-19]
Detector Response Time
The photodiode parameters responsible for these three factors
(transient time, diffusion time, RC time constant) are:
1. Absorption coefficient
2. Depletion region width
3. Photodiode junction and package capacitance
4. Amplifier capacitance
5. Detector load resistor
6. Amplifier input resistance
7. Photodiode series resistance
Detector Response Time
The diffusion processes are slow compared with the
drift of carriers in the high field region.
To have a high speed photodiode:
Photocarriers should be generated in the depletion
region or close to the depletion region.
Diffusion times should be less than or equal to the
carrier drift times.
The effect of long diffusion times can be seen by
considering the photodiode response time.
Detector Response Time
Response time is described by the rise time and the fall time
of the detector output when the detector is illuminated by the
step input of optical radiation.
The rise time is typically measured from the 10 to 90 percent
points of the leading edge of the output pulse.
For Fully depleted photodiodes the rise time and the fall time
are generally the same. They can be different at low bias
levels where the photodiode is not fully depleted.
Fast carriers
Charge carriers produced in the depletion region are separated
and collected quickly.
Slow carriers
Electron hole pairs generated in the n and p regions must
slowly diffuse to the depletion region before they can be
separated and collected.
Photodiode response to optical pulse
Typical response time of the
photodiode that is not fully depleted
Various optical responses of photodetectors:
Trade-off between quantum efficiency & response time
To achieve a high quantum efficiency, the depletion layer width must be
larger than 1 / s (the inverse of the absorption coefficient), so that most
of the light will be absorbed. At the same time with large width, the
capacitance is small and RC time constant getting smaller, leading to
faster response, but wide width results in larger transit time in the
depletion region. Therefore there is a trade-off between width and QE. It
is shown that the best is: 1 / s w 2 / s
Structures for InGaAs APDs
Separate-absorption-and multiplication (SAM) APD
light
substrate
buffer layer
INGaAs Absorption layer
multiplication layer
Metal contact
InGaAs APD superlattice structure (The multiplication region is composed
of several layers of InAlGaAs quantum wells separated by InAlAs barrier
layers.
Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD
InGaAs-InP heterostructure Separate Absorption and Multiplication APD
Electrode
InP
InP
p h
R
InGaAs
E
P +
P and N refer to p- and ntype wider-bandgap
semiconductor.
E (x )
n+
Avalanche
Absorption
region
region
x
out
Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD
E
c
(a) Energy
InP
band diagram for a SAM
heterojunction APD where there is a
E
E
v
valence band step Ev from InGaAs to
InGaAs
InP that slows hole entry into the InP
layer.
InP
InGaAsPgradinglayer
(b) An
InGaAs
interposing grading layer (InGaAsP)
with an intermediate bandgap breaks
Ev and makes it easier for the hole to
Photogeneratedelectronconcentration
exp(
x )attime
t =0
v
de
x
B
h > E
E
g
h +
ph
Temperature effect on avalanche gain
Comparison of photodetectors
