SENSORS
a.k.a.
Interfacing to the Real World:
Review of Electrical Sensors and Actuators
Andrew Mason
Associtate Professor, ECE
Teach: Microelectronics (analog & digital integrated Circ., VLSI)
Biomedical Engineering (instrumentation)
Research: Integrated Microsystems (on-chip sensors & circuits)
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.1
Transducers
Transducer
a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
take form of a sensor or an actuator
Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
acquires information from the real world
Actuator (e.g., heater)
a device that generates a signal or stimulus
real
world
sensor
actuator
ECE 480, Prof. A.
intelligent
feedback
system
Sensors p.2
Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
General Electronic Sensor
primary transducer: changes real world parameter into
electrical signal
secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real
world
primary
transducer
analo
g
signal
sensor
secondary
transducer
usable
values
Typical Electronic Sensor System
input
signal
(measurand)
sensor
sensor data
analog/digital
microcontroller
signal processing
communication
ECE 480, Prof. A.
network
display
Sensors p.3
Example Electronic Sensor Systems
Components vary with application
digital sensor within an instrument
microcontroller
signal timing
data storage
sensor
sensor
signal timing
memory
keypad
display
handheld instrument
analog sensor analyzed by a PC
sensor
sensor interface
e.g., RS232
A/D, communication
signal processing
PC
comm. card
multiple sensors displayed
internet over internet
sensor
processor
comm.
sensor bus
PC
sensor bus
comm. card
ECE 480, Prof. A.
sensor
processor
comm.
Sensors p.4
Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
thermocouple: temperature difference
compass (magnetic): direction
Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
microaccelerometers: vibration, -velocity (car crash)
chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.5
Example Primary Transducers
Light Sensor
photoconductor
light R
photodiode
light I
membrane pressure sensor
resistive (pressure R)
capacitive (pressure C)
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.6
Displacement Measurements
Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
Examples
diameter of part under stress (direct)
movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)
Primary Transducer Types
Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
Inductive Sensors
Capacitive Sensors
Piezoelectric Sensors
Secondary Transducers
Wheatstone Bridge
Amplifiers
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.7
Strain Gage: Gage Factor
Remember: for a strained thin wire
R/R = L/L A/A + /
A = (D/2)2, for circular wire
Poissons ratio, : relates change in diameter D to
change in length L
D/D = - L/L
Thus
R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
dimensional effect
piezoresistive effect
Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials
G = R/R = (1+2) + /
L/L
L/L
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.8
Temperature Sensor Options
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
positive temperature coefficients
Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistor)
formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
typically have negative temperature coefficients
Thermocouples
based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps. signal
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.9
Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
Sensor operation
small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
attached to ends of two optical fibers
light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
temperature
Can be made small enough for biological implantation
GaAs semiconductor temperature probe
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.10
Example MEMS Transducers
MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
Microaccelerometer
cantilever beam
suspended mass
Electrodes
Rotation
Ring
structure
gyroscope
Pressure
Diaphragm (Upper electrode)
Lower electrode
ECE 480, Prof. A.
5-10mm
Sensors p.11
Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
Photodiode Circuits
Thermistor Half-Bridge
voltage divider
one element varies
Wheatstone Bridge
R3 = resistive sensor
R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
Vout varies as R3 changes
VCC
R1+R4
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.12
Operational Amplifiers
Properties
open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
high open-loop gain virtual short between + and - inputs
input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to ideal
output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100
zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
Commercial opamps provide many different properties
low noise
low input current
low power
high bandwidth
low/high supply voltage
special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.13
Basic Opamp Configuration
Voltage Comparator
digitize input
Voltage Follower
buffer
Non-Inverting Amp
Inverting Amp
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.14
More Opamp Configurations
Summing Amp
Differential Amp
Integrating Amp
Differentiating Amp
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.15
Converting Configuration
Current-to-Voltage
Voltage-to-Current
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.16
Instrumentation Amplifier
Robust differential
gain amplifier
gain stage
Input stage
input stage
high input impedance
buffers gain stage
no common mode gain
can have differential gain
Gain stage
differential gain, low input impedance
Overall amplifier
amplifies only the differential component
total differential gain
2 R2 R1 R4
Gd
R1 R3
high common mode rejection ratio
high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high output
impedance
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.17
Instrumentation Amplifier w/ BP Filter
instrumentation amplifier
HPF
non-inverting amp
With 776 op amps, the circuit was found to have a CMRR of 86 dB at 100 Hz and a noise level of 40
mV peak to peak at the output. The frequency response was 0.04 to 150 Hz for 3 dB and was flat
over 4 to 40 Hz. The total gain is 25 (instrument amp) x 32 (non-inverting amp) = 800.
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.18
Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
Analog
sensor
sensor
signal timing
memory
keypad
display
instrument
many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D
8-bit to 12-bit common
many have multi-channel A/D inputs
Digital
serial I/O
use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
synchronous (with clock)
must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc.
frequency encoded
use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.19
Connecting Smart Sensors to PC/Network
Smart sensor = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
e.g., combining a dumb sensor and a microcontroller
Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
PC card with analog and digital I/O
interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
Communication Links Common for Sensors
asynchronous serial comm.
universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol
RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232
synchronous serial comm.
serial peripheral interface (SPI)
1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable
I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus
designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.20
Sensor Calibration
Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
offset: nominal output nominal parameter value
nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature
Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter
analog signal conditioning
look-up table
digital calibration
r
linea
T= temperature; V=sensor voltage;
a,b,c = calibration coefficients
Compensation
offset
T = a + bV +cV2,
ar
non-line
T1
T2
T3
remove secondary sensitivities
must have sensitivities characterized
can remove with polynomial evaluation
P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature
ECE 480, Prof. A.
Sensors p.21