CHAPTER 4

AC Machinery Fundamentals
Summary:
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
 The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
 The Torque induced in a current-carrying loop
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC Machines
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines
The Electric Power System, in very general terms,
is made up of
Generators,
Transformers,
Transmission and distribution lines, and
Loads.
Essentially all electric energy is generated in a
rotating machine, the synchronous generator,
and most of it is consumed by electric motors.
Various configurations result and are classified generally by the
type of electrical system to which the machine is connected:

Direct current (dc) machines or

Alternating current (ac) machines.

Machines with a dc supply are further divided into permanent

magnet and wound field types, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Direct Current Machine Classifications

Several variations of Machines that have ac are shown in Figure

FIGURE: Alternating Current Machine Classifications

FIGURE: Drive System
The electric machine may operate as a motor or as a generator.
Only the direction of energy transfer is affected.

FIGURE: Four-Quadrant Operation

 AC Machines

Synchronous Induction Machines

Machines

Magnetic field current is Field current is supplied

supplied by a separate by magnetic induction
dc power source (transformer action)
into their field windings.

The field circuits are located

on their rotors.
1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
The figure below shows a simple rotating loop in a uniform magnetic field.
(a) is the front view and (b) is the view of the coil. The rotating part is
called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the stator.

This case in not representative of real ac machines (flux in real ac

machines is not constant in either magnitude or direction)
The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
If the rotor (loop) is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop. To
determine the magnitude and shape, examine the phasors below:

To determine the total voltage induced etot on the loop, examine each
segment of the loop separately and sum all the resulting voltages. The
voltage on each segment is given by equation
eind = (v x B) . l
1. Segment ab
The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. The quantity v x B points into the
page, which is the same direction as segment ab. Thus, the induced
voltage on this segment is:
eba = (v x B) . l
= vBl sin θab into the page
2. Segment bc
In the first half of this segment, the quantity v x B points into the page, and
in the second half of this segment, the quantity v x B points out of the page.
Since the length l is in the plane of the page, v x B is perpendicular to l for
both portions of the segment. Thus,

ecb = 0
3. Segment cd
The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while B points
to the right. The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the same
direction as segment cd. Thus,
ecd = (v x B) . l
= vBl sin θcd out of the page
4. Segment da
same as segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to l. Thus,
eda = 0
Total induced voltage on the loop
eind = eba + ecb + edc + ead
= vBl sin θab + vBl sin θcd
= 2 vBL sinθ
since θab = 180º - θcd and sin θ = sin (180º - θ )
Alternative way to express eind:
If the loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity ω, then the angle θ of
the loop will increase linearly with time.

θ = ωt
also, the tangential velocity v of the edges of the loop is:

v= r ω
where r is the radius from axis of rotation out to the edge of the loop and
ω is the angular velocity of the loop. Hence,

eind = 2r ωBl sin ωt

since area, A = 2rl,

eind = ABω sin ωt

Finally, since maximum flux through the loop occurs when the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic flux density lines, so

max  AB

eind  max sin t

From here we may conclude that the induced voltage is dependent

upon:
Flux level (the B component)
Speed of Rotation (the v component)
Machine Constants (the l component and machine materials)
The Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying Loop

Assume that the rotor loop is at some arbitrary angle θ wrt the magnetic
field, and that current is flowing in the loop.
To determine the magnitude and direction of the torque, examine
the phasors below:

The force on each segment of the loop is given by:

F = i (l x B )
  rF sin 
Torque on that segment,
1. Segment ab
The direction of the current is into the page, while the magnetic field B
points to the right. (l x B) points down. Thus,
F = i (l x B )
= ilB down
Resulting torque,
 ab  ( F )(r sin  ab )
 rilB sin  ab clockwise
2. Segment bc
The direction of the current is in the plane of the page, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. (l x B) points into the page. Thus,
F = i (l x B )
= ilB into the page
Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and the angle
θbc is 0.
 bc  ( F )(r sin  ab )
=0
3. Segment cd
The direction of the current is out of the page, while the magnetic field B
points to the right. (l x B) points up. Thus,
F = i (l x B )
= ilB up
Resulting torque,
 cd  ( F )(r sin  cd )
 rilB sin  cd clockwise
4. Segment da
The direction of the current is in the plane of the page, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. (l x B) points out of the page.
Thus,
F = i (l x B )
= ilB out of the page
Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and the angle
θda is 0.   ( F )(r sin  )
da da
=0
The total induced torque on the loop:
 ind   ab   bc   cd   da
 rilB sin  ab  rilB sin  cd
2rilB sin 

PS:
The torque is maximum when the plane of the loop is parallel to the
magnetic field, and the torque is zero when the plane of the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
If the current in the loop is as shown, that current will generate a
magnetic flux density Bloop with the direction shown. The magnitude of
Bloop is:
i
Bloop 
G
Where G is a factor that depends on the geometry of the loop.
The area of the loop A is 2rl and substituting these two equations into
the torque equation earlier yields:
AG
 ind  Bloop BS sin 

 kBloop BS sin 
Where k=AG/µ is a factor depending on the construction of the machine,
BS is used for the stator magnetic field to distinguish it from the magnetic
field generated by the rotor, and θ is the angle between Bloop and BS.
Thus,
 ind  kBloop xBS
  ind  kBloop xBS

From here, we may conclude that torque is dependent upon:

Strength of rotor magnetic field
Strength of stator magnetic field
Angle between the 2 fields
Machine constants
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
 If two magnetic fields are present in a machine, then a torque will be
created which will tend to line up the two magnetic fields.
 If one magnetic field is produced by the stator of an ac machine and
the other by the rotor, then a torque will be induced in the rotor which
will cause the rotor to turn and align itself with the stator magnetic field.

 If there were some way to make the stator magnetic field rotate, then
the induced torque in the rotor would cause it to ‘chase’ the stator
magnetic field.
 How do we make the stator magnetic field to rotate?
Fundamental principle –
a 3-phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and differing in
phase by 120º, flows in a 3-phase winding, then it will produce a rotating
magnetic field of constant magnitude.

The rotating magnetic field concept is illustrated below – empty stator

containing 3 coils 120º apart. It is a 2-pole winding (one north and one
south).
(a) A simple three phase stator. Currents in this stator are assumed
positive if they flow into the unprimed end and out the primed end of
the coils. The H produced by each coil are also shown.
(b) The magnetizing intensity vector Haa’ (t) produced by a current
flowing in coil aa’.
 Let’s apply a set of currents to the stator above and see what happens at
specific instants of time. Assume currents in the 3 coils are:

iaa ' (t )  I M sin t A

ibb ' (t )  I M sin(t  120) A
icc ' (t )  I M sin(t  240) A
The current in coil aa’ flows into the a end of the coil and out the a’ end of
the coil. It produces the magnetic field intensity:
H aa ' (t )  H M sin t0 A  turns / m
H bb ' (t )  H M sin(t  120)120 A  turns / m

H cc ' (t )  H M sin(t  240)240 A  turns / m

The flux densities equations are:

Baa ' (t )  BM sin t0 T

Bbb ' (t )  BM sin(t  120)120 T
Bcc ' (t )  BM sin(t  240)240 T

Where BM = µ HM.
At time t  0 
Baa '  0
Bbb '  BM sin( 120)120 T
Bcc '  BM sin( 240)240 T
The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be
Bnet = Baa’ + Bbb’ +Bcc’

 3   3 
 0    BM 120    BM 240
 2   2 

 1.5 BM   90

At time t  90
Baa '  BM 0
Bbb '  0.5 BM 120 T

Bcc '  0.5 BM 240 T

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be
Bnet = Baa’ + Bbb’ +Bcc’

 BM 0    0.5 BM  120    0.5BM  240

 1.5 BM 0
The resulting magnetic flux is as shown below:

t  0 t  90
Proof of Rotating Magnetic Field Concept
At any time t, the magnetic field will have the same magnitude 1.5 BM and it
will continue to rotate at angular velocity w.

Proof:
Refer again to the stator in Figure 4.1. x direction is to the right and y
direction is upward.
Assume that we represent the direction of the magnetic field densities in
the form of:

xˆ  horizontal unit vector

yˆ  vertical unit vector
To find the total magnetic flux density in the stator, simply add
vectorially the three component magnetic fields and determine their
sum.
 We know that:

Bnet (t )  BM sin t0  BM sin(t  120)120  BM sin(t  240)240 T

We may convert the total flux density into unit vector forms to give:

Bnet (t )  1.5 BM sin t  xˆ  1.5 BM cos t  yˆ

Notice that the magnitude of the field is a constant 1.5BM and the angle
changes continually in a counterclockwise direction at angular velocity
w. Also, at wt=0°, Bnet=1.5BM -90°, and at wt=90°, Bnet=1.5BM 0°.
The Relationship between Electrical Frequency and
the Speed of Magnetic Field Rotation