DESIGN OF

RETAINING WALLS
2 Retaining Walls -
Applications

high
way
3 Retaining Walls -
Applications

High-rise
building

basement wall
4
Retaining Walls - Applications

Metros and Subways

Road
Train
 E E

Tunnel

Dock
Abutment
 RETAINING WALLS
TYPES
GRAVITY WALLS
 RETAINING WALLS
TYPES

CANTILEVER
 RETAINING WALLS
TYPES

COUNTERFORT
SIIT-Thammasat University RETAINING WALLS
TYPES

COUNTERFORT

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SIIT-Thammasat University RETAINING WALLS
TYPES

BUTTRESS

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CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS
PARTS

STEM
or
Wall Slab

BACKFILL
FRONT

TOE HEEL

KEY

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 Lateral Earth Pressure

?
?
(R.P.
Weber)

?
?

(R.P.
Weber)
Water Pressure and Soil Pressure
Consider hydrostatic Consider “at-rest” (geostatic)
condition condition

z

x
Anisotrop
Isotropi ic
c
z ≠ x z > x
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y

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EARTH PRESSURES

 PRESSURE AT REST
 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

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PRESSURE AT REST

RIGID

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 Lateral Earth Pressure
At Rest Earth Pressure
One common earth pressure coefficient for the “at rest”
condition in granular soil is:
Ko = 1 – sin(φ)
Where: Ko is the “at rest” earth pressure coefficient and φ is
the soil friction value.
z

z
K0z
1 2
Eo  h K o
h

h/3

K0h
SIIT-Thammasat University
EARTH PRESSURES

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 Active
Failure

move
ment
 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

RANKINE ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

 3 =  1 . tan2 (45-/2)-2c.tan (45-/2)

RANKINE ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

 3 =  1 . tan2 (45-/2)-2c.tan (45-/2)

 a =  v . tan2 (45-/2)-2c.tan (45-/2)
 a =  v . Ka – 2cKa Ka = tan2 (45 - /2)
 Active Stress Distribution (c ≠ 0)
28

γ
zo
c≠0
Φ
H dry soil
_- =

Ka γH 2 c (Ka)1/2 Ka γH – 2 c (Ka)1/2

Find zo:
Ka γzo – 2 c (Ka)1/2 = 0
Zo = 2c / γ (Ka)1/2
Pa = ?
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Note :
z = 0  v = 0 ; a = -2cKa
z = H  v = H
The tensile stress decreases with depth and becomes zero at a
depth z = zc or
zcKa – 2cKa = 0
and

2c
zc  zc = depth of tensile crack
 Ka
 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

RANKINE ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE FOR INCLINED

BACKFILL

cos   cos 2   cos 2 

Ka  cos 
cos   cos 2   cos 2 

Pa  1
2 .  .H 2
.Ka
(for granular soil, c = 0)

For c- soil

 a  zK a  zK a ' cos 
where :
  2
 
c c c 2
Ka ' 
1 
2 cos   2  cos  sin  
cos  
2 2
 2 2

4 cos  cos   cos   4  cos   8  cos  sin  cos     1
2

 z   z   z 
2
  
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PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

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 Passive
Failure
move
ment
 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

RANKINE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
RANKINE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

 p=  v . tan2(45+/2) + 2c . tan (45+/2)

 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
RANKINE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Kp = tan2 (45 + /2)

 h =  v . Kp + 2cKp
 Passive Stress Distribution (c ≠ 0)
40

γ
c≠0
Φ
H dry soil +- =

Kp γH 2 c (Kp)1/2 Kp γH + 2 c (Kp)1/2

 h =  v .Pp
Kp= +? 2cKp

Kp = tan2 (45 + /2)

Ka < K0< Kp
 Lateral Earth Pressure

-△ +△
E

Ep

Eo
Ea o
-△ △a △p +△

Relation among three earth pressures

 Lateral Earth Pressure
Example 1
 Lateral Earth Pressure
Example 2

A  1=17kN/
h1 =2m
m3
c1=0
B
h=5m

 =34o
 21=19kN/
h2 =3m

m3
c2=10kPa

C  2=16o
 Lateral Earth Pressure
Solution:
A

h1=2m
10.4k
B
h=5m
Pa
4.2kP
a
h2=3m

C 36.6k
Pa
paA   1 zK a1  0
paB上   1h1 K a1＝10.4kPa
paB下   1h1 K a 2－2c2 K a 2＝4.2kPa
paC  ( 1h1   2 h2 ) K a 2  2c2 K a 2  36.6kPa
Ea  10.4  2 / 2  (4.2  36.6)  3 / 2＝71.6kN / m
 Active Stress Distribution (c = 0)
48

γ
c=0
Φ
H dry soil

Pa = ?
? - What is this value

σa‘ = Ka σv’ – 2 c (Ka)1/2

σa‘ = Ka σv’
0

σa‘ is the stress distribution

Pa is the force on the wall (per foot of wall)
How is Pa found?
 Passive Stress Distribution (c = 0)
49

γ
c=0
Φ
H dry soil

Pp = ?
? - What is this value

σp‘ = Kp σv’ – 2 c (Kp)1/2

σp‘ = Kp σv’
0

σp‘ is the stress distribution

Pp is the force on the wall (per foot of wall)
How is Pp found?
Stress Distribution - Water Table (c = 0)
50

Effective Stress Pore Water Pressure

H1
Ka γ H1

H2
Pa

Ka γ H1 Ka γ’ H2 γw H2
or
Ka (γ H1 + γ’ H 2)

Pa = Σ areas = ½ Ka γH12 + Ka γH1H2 + ½ Ka γ’H22 + 1/2γwH22

 Stress Distribution With Water Table
51
Why is the water pressure considered separately? (K)

Effective Stress Pore Water Pressure

H1 0
Ka γ H1

H2
Pa

Ka γ H1 Ka γ’ H2 γw H2
or
Ka (γ H1 + γ’ H 2)
 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Assumptions:

COULOMB ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

-Fill material is
granular soil
- Friction of
wall and fill
material is
considered
- Soil failure
shape is plane
(BC1, BC2 …)
Pa = ½ Ka .  . H2

sin 2 (  )
Ka  2
 sin(    ). sin(    ) 
sin  . sin     1 
2

 sin(    ). sin(    ) 
 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

COULOMB’S ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE WITH A SURCHARGE ON THE

BACKFILL
 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
COULOMB PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
sin 2 (  )
Kp  2
 sin(   ). sin(   ) 
sin 2  . sin     1  
 sin(   ). sin(   ) 

Pp = ½ Kp .  . H2
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STABILITY

 OVERTURNING
 SLIDING
 BEARING

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OVERTURNIN
G

Highway Loading (Surcharge)

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OVERTURNIN
Overturning Forces G
Full Surcharge Here
No Surcharge Here

Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

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OVERTURNIN
Restoring Forces G
Weight of Wall
No Passive
Pressure

Weight of Soil
(with care)

Weight of Soil

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OVERTURNIN
G

Restoring Moment
FOS vs OT =
Overturning Moment

A FOS = 2 is considered sufficient

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Sliding Forces
SLIDING
Full Surcharge Here
No Surcharge Here

Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge
H1

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Resisting Forces
SLIDING

No Surcharge Here
Resisting Forces
H2 + V
 =Coeff of Friction
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1

H2
Vc2 Vc3

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SLIDING without
KEY

Passive Earth Pressure Force+ V

FOS vs Sliding = Active Earth Pressure Force

A FOS = 1.5 is considered sufficient

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Sliding Forces
SLIDING with
KEY
No Surcharge Here

Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

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SLIDING with
Resisting Forces
KEY
No Surcharge Here

Vc1
Vs2 Vs1

H
Vc2 Vc3

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Find Vertical forces SLIDING with

acting in front and
back of key KEY
No Surcharge Here

RESULTANT
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1
Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

Vc2 Vc3

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SLIDING with
Determine Pressure KEY
Distribution Under Base
A=B
x e
S=B2/6
V

V 6Ve
 2
B B
V 6Ve
 2
B B

B
B/2
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SLIDING with
KEY
Determine Force in Front of KEY

y2
P2 y3
y1 P1

y3=y2+(y1-y2) (B-x1)/B

B P1=(y1+y3) x1/2
x1
P2=V-P1

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SLIDING with
KEY
When Pressure Distribution Under
Base is Partially Negative

V e

V 6Ve
 2
B B
V 6Ve
 2
B B

B
B/2
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SLIDING with
V e
KEY

V 6Ve
 2
B B
V 6Ve
 2
B B

B
x
3x Determine P1 and
2V P2 P2 once again
P1
3x
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SLIDING with
Active Earth Pressure Force KEY

Total Sliding Force = H1

Total Resisting Force = P1 tan P2 + H2

Passive Earth
Force in Front of Key Pressure Force

Internal Friction of Soil Force on and

Back of Key
Friction b/w Soil, Concrete
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BEARING

There are two possible critical conditions

1. No surcharge on heel

2. Surcharge on heel

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BEARING
This case has been dealt already
No Surcharge on Heel

RESULTANT
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1
Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

Vc2 Vc3

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DETERMINE THE PRESSURE BEARING

DISTRIBUTION UNDER BASE SLAB
Surcharge on Heel
Vs

RESULTANT
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1
Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

Vc2 Vc3

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Determine Pressure
Distribution Under Base

A=B
x e
S=B2/6
V

V 6Ve
 2
B B
V 6Ve
 2
B B

B
B/2
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Compare Pressure with
Bearing Capacity

V 6Ve
 2
B B
V 6Ve
 2
B B
B

Allowable Bearing
FOS vs Bearing =
Max Bearing Pressure

V 6Ve
 2
B B
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ALTERNATELY
V 6Ve
V 6Ve  2
 2 B B
B B B

2V/3x
3x

Allowable Bearing
FOS vs Bearing =
Max Bearing Pressure

2V/3x
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END OF PART I
SIIT-Thammasat University
BENDING OF WALL

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DESIGN OF STEM
CRITICAL
SECTIONS
Critical Section Shear

Critical Section
Moment

Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

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DESIGN OF STEM

Design Moment
=1.6 (H1 y1 + H2 Surcharge = s
y2) N/m2

h
H1=Ca s h

y1 y2 H2=0.5 Ca  s
h2

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DESIGN OF STEM
Design Shear=1.7(H '1+H
 h  d '2)  h  d  2 
1 .7  H 1  H 2  
 h  h   Surcharge = s
N/m2

h
H'1=Ca s (h-
d)
H'2=0.5 Ca  s (h-
d d)2

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DESIGN OF TOE SLAB
CRITICAL
SECTIONS
Critical Section (Shear)

Critical Section
Moment

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DESIGN OF TOE SLAB
Design Loads
1.6Soil Pressure
0.9 Self Wt
0.9 Soil in Front
(may be
neglected)

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TOE : DESIGN MOMENT

1.6(0.5 T y3) T/3

+1.6(0.5 T y1) 2T/3
-0.9 wc T2/2
-0.9 ws T2/2

y3
y1
T

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TOE : DESIGN SHEAR

1.6(0.5 Ts) y3 Ts/T

+1.6(0.5 T y1-0.5 d [y1/T] d)
-0.9 wc Ts
-0.9 ws Ts

y3
y1

Ts=T-d

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DESIGN OF HEEL SLAB
CRITICAL
SECTIONS

Critical Section
Moment & Shear

TENSION
FACES

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DESIGN OF HEEL SLAB
DESIGN LOADS
1.6s + 1.2  s +1.2
c

Soil Pressure
Neglected

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BENDING OF WALL

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MAIN REINFORCEMENT

Minimum 75 mm Clear
Cover

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ACI CODE
SECONDARY STEELS

ACI 14.3.2
ACI 14.3.3

ACI Minimum SLAB

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END OF PART II
SIIT-Thammasat University
DRAINAGE

Weepers
Or
Weep Holes

Sand + Stone Filter

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DRAINAGE

Drainage Pipes f 100-200 mm @ 2.5 to 4 m

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DRAINAGE (Alternate)

Perforated Pipe

Suited for short walls

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End of Part III

END OF PART III

 Active
Active and Passive Limit Conditions
Failur
e
Active Failure Condition move Wedg
Ka = Coefficient of ment e
Active Earth Passiv
(45+ /
Pressure e
2)
(Wall Moving Away Failur
from Backfill) e
Passive Failure Condition move Wedg
(small  x)
Kp = Coefficient of ment e
Passive Earth Pressure (45
(Wall Moving Toward - /2)
 Failur
Rankine Active Failure Surface
e

45
Pole  /2
45
Point
 /2
 1  sin  ' 
 ' z   ' x  
 1  sin  ' 
so..
 1  sin  '   ' 
K a     tan 2  45  
 1  sin  '   2
 Passive
Rankine Passive Failure Surface
Failure

45 Pole
 /2 Point
 1  sin  ' 
 ' x   ' z  
 1  sin  ' 
so..
 1  sin  '   ' 
K p     tan 2  45  
 1  sin  '   2
  x decreases until
Consider Mohr’s Circles… failure

 x increases until
Passive failure

Failure
move
ment
away
wall movement… Movement
Stationary
from toward
(at rest)
backfill backfill
Passive
Active
Failure at Kp
Failure at
Ka

Ka < K0< Kp
 Lateral Earth Pressure
101

σv’
H
σh’

• We can calculate σv’

• Now, calculate σh’ which is the horizontal stress
• σh‘/ σv‘ = K
• Therefore, σh‘ = Kσv‘ (σV‘ is what?)
 Lateral Earth Pressure
102

• There are 3 states of lateral earth pressure

Ko = At Rest
Ka = Active Earth Pressure (wall moves away from soil)
Kp = Passive Earth Pressure (wall moves into soil)
Passive is more like a resistance

σv z

H
σh
 At Rest Earth Pressure
103
At rest earth pressure occur when there is no wall rotation such as
in a braced wall (basement wall for example)

Ko can be calculated as follows:

Ko = 1 – sin φ for coarse grained soils
Ko = .44 + .42 [PI / 100] for NC soils
Ko (oc) = Ko (NC) (OCR)1/2 for OC soils

σv z
H
σh
 AT REST EARTH PRESSURE

q Jaky, Broker and Ireland  Ko = M – sin ’

Sand, normally consolidated

clay  M = 1

z v =  . z + q Clayand
Broker with OCR
Ireland >2M=
v 0.95+ 0.007 PI , 0  PI  40
Ko = 0.40
h Ko = 0.64 + 0.001 PI , 40  PI  80
Sherif and Ishibashi  Ko =  +  (OCR – 1)
h
K  = 0.54 + 0.00444
v
(LL – 20)
At rest, K = Ko
 = 0.09 + 0.00111