Fundamentals of the

Nervous System and

Nervous Tissue
Nervous System

▪ The master controlling and communicating system

of the body
▪ Functions
▪ Sensory input – monitoring stimuli occurring inside
and outside the body
▪ Integration – interpretation of sensory input
▪ Motor output – response to stimuli by activating
effector organs
Nervous System

Figure 11.1
Organization of the Nervous System

▪ Central nervous system (CNS)

▪ Brain and spinal cord
▪ Integration and command center
▪ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
▪ Paired spinal and cranial nerves
▪ Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and
brain
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Two
Functional Divisions

▪ Sensory (afferent) division

▪ Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain
▪ Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from
visceral organs to the brain
▪ Motor (efferent) division
▪ Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs
Motor Division: Two Main Parts

▪ Somatic nervous system

▪ Conscious control of skeletal muscles
▪ Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
▪ Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
▪ Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic
Histology of Nerve Tissue

▪ The two principal cell types of the nervous system

are:
▪ Neurons – excitable cells that transmit electrical
signals
▪ Supporting cells – cells that surround and wrap
neurons
Supporting Cells: Neuroglia

▪ The supporting cells (neuroglia or glial cells):

▪ Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons
▪ Segregate and insulate neurons
▪ Guide young neurons to the proper connections
▪ Promote health and growth
Astrocytes

▪ Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial

cells
▪ They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings,
and cover capillaries
▪ Functionally, they:
▪ Support and brace neurons
▪ Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies
▪ Guide migration of young neurons
▪ Control the chemical environment
Astrocytes

Figure 11.3a
Microglia and Ependymal Cells

▪ Microglia – small, ovoid cells with spiny processes

▪ Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons
▪ Ependymal cells – range in shape from squamous to
columnar
▪ They line the central cavities of the brain and spinal
column
Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Figure 11.3b, c
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite
Cells

▪ Oligodendrocytes – branched cells that wrap CNS

nerve fibers
▪ Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) – surround fibers
of the PNS
▪ Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies with
ganglia
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite
Cells

Figure 11.3d, e
Neurons (Nerve Cells)

▪ Structural units of the nervous system

▪ Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites
▪ Long-lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic
rate
▪ Their plasma membrane functions in:
▪ Electrical signaling
▪ Cell-to-cell signaling during development
Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Figure 11.4b
Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)

▪ Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus

▪ Is the major biosynthetic center
▪ Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal
processes
▪ Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)
▪ Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)
▪ Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from
which axons arise
Processes

▪ Armlike extensions from the soma

▪ Called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS
▪ There are two types: axons and dendrites
Dendrites of Motor Neurons

▪ Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes

▪ They are the receptive, or input, regions of the
neuron
▪ Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials
(not action potentials)
Axons: Structure

▪ Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from

the hillock
▪ Long axons are called nerve fibers
▪ Usually there is only one unbranched axon per
neuron
▪ Rare branches, if present, are called axon collaterals
▪ Axonal terminal – branched terminus of an axon
Axons: Function

▪ Generate and transmit action potentials

▪ Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals
▪ Movement along axons occurs in two ways
▪ Anterograde — toward axonal terminal
▪ Retrograde — away from axonal terminal
Myelin Sheath

▪ Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath

around most long axons
▪ It functions to:
▪ Protect the axon
▪ Electrically insulate fibers from one another
▪ Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission
Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

▪ Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS

▪ A Schwann cell:
▪ Envelopes an axon in a trough
▪ Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane
▪ Has concentric layers of membrane that make up
the myelin sheath
▪ Neurilemma – remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of
a Schwann cell
Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

Figure 11.5a-c
Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)

▪ Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent

Schwann cells
▪ They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge
 Unmyelinated Axons

▪ A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but coiling

does not take place
▪ Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons
Axons of the CNS

▪ Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present

▪ Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
▪ Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced
▪ There is no neurilemma
Conduction Velocities of Axons

▪ Conduction velocities vary widely among neurons

▪ Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:
▪ Axon diameter – the larger the diameter, the faster
the impulse
▪ Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination
dramatically increases impulse speed
CONDUCTION VELOCITIES

▪ The speed with which an action potential travels

depends on 2 factors:
▪ Diameter of axon – the larger the faster
▪ Degree of myelination
▪ Myelinated – faster
▪ Saltatory conduction
Saltatory Conduction

▪ Current passes through a myelinated axon only at

the nodes of Ranvier
▪ Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at
these nodes
▪ Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and
jump from one node to the next
▪ Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated
axons
Saltatory Conduction

Figure 11.16
Regions of the Brain and Spinal Cord

▪ White matter – dense collections of myelinated

fibers
▪ Gray matter – mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers
Neuron Classification

▪ Structural:
▪ Multipolar — three or more processes
▪ Bipolar — two processes (axon and dendrite)
▪ Unipolar — single, short process
Neuron Classification

▪ Functional:
▪ Sensory (afferent) — transmit impulses toward the
CNS
▪ Motor (efferent) — carry impulses away from the
CNS
▪ Interneurons (association neurons) — shuttle
signals through CNS pathways
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.1
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.2
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.3
Neurophysiology

▪ Neurons are highly irritable

▪ Action potentials, or nerve impulses, are:
▪ Electrical impulses carried along the length of
axons
▪ Always the same regardless of stimulus
▪ The underlying functional feature of the nervous
system
Nerve Fiber Classification

▪ Nerve fibers are classified according to:

▪ Diameter
▪ Degree of myelination
▪ Speed of conduction
Synapses

▪ A junction that mediates information transfer from

one neuron:
▪ To another neuron
▪ To an effector cell
▪ Presynaptic neuron – conducts impulses toward the
synapse
▪ Postsynaptic neuron – transmits impulses away from
the synapse
Synapses

Figure 11.17
Types of Synapses

▪ Axodendritic – synapses between the axon of one

neuron and the dendrite of another
▪ Axosomatic – synapses between the axon of one
neuron and the soma of another
▪ Other types of synapses include:
▪ Axoaxonic (axon to axon)
▪ Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
▪ Dendrosomatic (dendrites to soma)
Electrical Synapses

▪ Electrical synapses:
▪ Are less common than chemical synapses
▪ Correspond to gap junctions found in other cell
types
▪ Are important in the CNS in:
▪ Arousal from sleep
▪ Mental attention
▪ Emotions and memory
▪ Ion and water homeostasis
Chemical Synapses

▪ Specialized for the release and reception of

neurotransmitters
▪ Typically composed of two parts:
▪ Axonal terminal of the presynaptic neuron, which
contains synaptic vesicles
▪ Receptor region on the dendrite(s) or soma of the
postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic Cleft

▪ Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic and

postsynaptic neurons
▪ Prevents nerve impulses from directly passing from
one neuron to the next
▪ Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
▪ Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical one)
▪ Ensures unidirectional communication between
neurons
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

▪ Nerve impulses reach the axonal terminal of the

presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels
▪ Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
via exocytosis in response to synaptotagmin
▪ Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds
to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
▪ Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes,
causing an excitatory or inhibitory effect
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

Figure 11.19
Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects

▪ Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron:

▪ Produces a continuous postsynaptic effect
▪ Blocks reception of additional “messages”
▪ Must be removed from its receptor
▪ Removal of neurotransmitters occurs when they:
▪ Are degraded by enzymes
▪ Are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the presynaptic terminals
▪ Diffuse from the synaptic cleft
Synaptic Delay

▪ Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across

the synapse, and bind to receptors
▪ Synaptic delay – time needed to do this (0.3-5.0 ms)
▪ Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural
transmission
Postsynaptic Potentials

▪ Neurotransmitter receptors mediate changes in

membrane potential according to:
▪ The amount of neurotransmitter released
▪ The amount of time the neurotransmitter is bound
to receptors
▪ The two types of postsynaptic potentials are:
▪ EPSP – excitatory postsynaptic potentials
▪ IPSP – inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

▪ EPSPs are graded potentials that can initiate an

action potential in an axon
▪ Use only chemically gated channels
▪ Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the same
time
▪ Postsynaptic membranes do not generate action
potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

Figure 11.20a
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

▪ Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory

synapses:
▪ Causes the membrane to become more permeable
to potassium and chloride ions
▪ Leaves the charge on the inner surface negative
▪ Reduces the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to
produce an action potential
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

Figure 11.20b
Summation

▪ A single EPSP cannot induce an action potential

▪ EPSPs must summate temporally or spatially to
induce an action potential
▪ Temporal summation – presynaptic neurons transmit
impulses in rapid-fire order
Summation

▪ Spatial summation – postsynaptic neuron is

stimulated by a large number of terminals at the
same time
▪ IPSPs can also summate with EPSPs, canceling each
other out
Summation

Figure 11.21
Neurotransmitters

▪ Chemicals used for neuronal communication with

the body and the brain
▪ 50 different neurotransmitters have been identified
▪ Classified chemically and functionally
Chemical Neurotransmitters

▪ Acetylcholine (ACh)
▪ Biogenic amines
▪ Amino acids
▪ Peptides
▪ Novel messengers: ATP and dissolved gases NO
and CO
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine

▪ First neurotransmitter identified, and best

understood
▪ Released at the neuromuscular junction
▪ Synthesized and enclosed in synaptic vesicles
▪ Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
(AChE)
▪ Released by:
▪ All neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle
▪ Some neurons in the autonomic nervous system
Neurotransmitters: Biogenic Amines

▪ Include:
▪ Catecholamines – dopamine, norepinephrine (NE),
and epinephrine
▪ Indolamines – serotonin and histamine
▪ Broadly distributed in the brain
▪ Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological
clock
Synthesis of Catecholamines

▪ Enzymes present in the

cell determine length of
biosynthetic pathway
▪ Norepinephrine and
dopamine are
synthesized in axonal
terminals
▪ Epinephrine is released
by the adrenal medulla
Figure 11.22
Neurotransmitters: Amino Acids

▪ Include:
▪ GABA – Gamma (γ)-aminobutyric acid
▪ Glycine
▪ Aspartate
▪ Glutamate
▪ Found only in the CNS
Neurotransmitters: Peptides

▪ Include:
▪ Substance P – mediator of pain signals
▪ Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins
▪ Act as natural opiates, reducing our perception of
pain
▪ Bind to the same receptors as opiates and morphine
▪ Gut-brain peptides – somatostatin, and
cholecystokinin
Neurotransmitters: Novel Messengers

▪ ATP
▪ Is found in both the CNS and PNS
▪ Produces excitatory or inhibitory responses
depending on receptor type
▪ Induces Ca2+ wave propagation in astrocytes
▪ Provokes pain sensation
Neurotransmitters: Novel Messengers

▪ Nitric oxide (NO)

▪ Activates the intracellular receptor guanylyl cyclase
▪ Is involved in learning and memory
▪ Carbon monoxide (CO) is a main regulator of cGMP
in the brain
Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters

▪ Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory

▪ Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarizations
(e.g., glutamate)
▪ Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
hyperpolarizations (e.g., GABA and glycine)
Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters

▪ Some neurotransmitters have both excitatory and

inhibitory effects
▪ Determined by the receptor type of the postsynaptic
neuron
▪ Example: acetylcholine
▪ Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions with
skeletal muscle
▪ Inhibitory in cardiac muscle
Neurotransmitter Receptor Mechanisms
▪ Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion channels
▪ Promote rapid responses
▪ Examples: ACh and amino acids
▪ Indirect: neurotransmitters that act through second
messengers
▪ Promote long-lasting effects
▪ Examples: biogenic amines, peptides, and dissolved
gases
Channel-Linked Receptors

▪ Composed of integral membrane protein

▪ Mediate direct neurotransmitter action
▪ Action is immediate, brief, simple, and highly
localized
▪ Ligand binds the receptor, and ions enter the cells
▪ Excitatory receptors depolarize membranes
▪ Inhibitory receptors hyperpolarize membranes
Channel-Linked Receptors

Figure 11.23a
G Protein-Linked Receptors

▪ Responses are indirect, slow, complex, prolonged,

and often diffuse
▪ These receptors are transmembrane protein
complexes
▪ Examples: muscarinic ACh receptors,
neuropeptides, and those that bind biogenic amines
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Mechanism

▪ Neurotransmitter binds to G protein-linked receptor

▪ G protein is activated and GTP is hydrolyzed to
GDP
▪ The activated G protein complex activates adenylate
cyclase
▪ Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation of cAMP
from ATP
▪ cAMP, a second messenger, brings about various
cellular responses
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Mechanism

Figure 11.23b
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Effects

▪ G protein-linked receptors activate intracellular

second messengers including Ca2+, cGMP,
diacylglycerol, as well as cAMP
▪ Second messengers:
▪ Open or close ion channels
▪ Activate kinase enzymes
▪ Phosphorylate channel proteins
▪ Activate genes and induce protein synthesis
Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

▪ Functional groups of neurons that:

▪ Integrate incoming information
▪ Forward the processed information to its
appropriate destination
Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

▪ Simple neuronal pool

▪ Input fiber – presynaptic fiber
▪ Discharge zone – neurons most closely associated
with the incoming fiber
▪ Facilitated zone – neurons farther away from
incoming fiber
Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

Figure 11.24
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

▪ Divergent – one incoming fiber stimulates ever

increasing number of fibers, often amplifying
circuits

Figure 11.25a, b
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

▪ Convergent –
opposite of
divergent
circuits, resulting
in either strong
stimulation or
inhibition

Figure 11.25c, d
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

▪ Reverberating – chain of neurons containing

collateral synapses with previous neurons in the
chain

Figure 11.25e
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

▪ Parallel after-discharge – incoming neurons

stimulate several neurons in parallel arrays

Figure 11.25f
Patterns of Neural Processing

▪ Serial Processing
▪ Input travels along one pathway to a specific
destination
▪ Works in an all-or-none manner
▪ Example: spinal reflexes
Patterns of Neural Processing

▪ Parallel Processing
▪ Input travels along several pathways
▪ Pathways are integrated in different CNS systems
▪ One stimulus promotes numerous responses
▪ Example: a smell may remind one of the odor and
associated experiences
Development of Neurons

▪ The nervous system originates from the neural tube

and neural crest
▪ The neural tube becomes the CNS
▪ There is a three-phase process of differentiation:
▪ Proliferation of cells needed for development
▪ Migration – cells become amitotic and move
externally
▪ Differentiation into neuroblasts
Axonal Growth

▪ Guided by:
▪ Scaffold laid down by older neurons
▪ Orienting glial fibers
▪ Release of nerve growth factor by astrocytes
▪ Neurotropins released by other neurons
▪ Repulsion guiding molecules
▪ Attractants released by target cells
N-CAMs

▪ N-CAM – nerve cell adhesion molecule

▪ Important in establishing neural pathways
▪ Without N-CAM, neural function is impaired
▪ Found in the membrane of the growth cone
Sensory Receptors
Sensory Receptors

▪ Structures specialized to respond to stimuli

▪ Activation of sensory receptors results in
depolarizations that trigger impulses to the CNS
▪ The realization of these stimuli, sensation and
perception, occur in the brain
Receptor Classification by Stimulus Type

▪ Mechanoreceptors – respond to touch, pressure,

vibration, stretch, and itch
▪ Thermoreceptors – sensitive to changes in
temperature
▪ Photoreceptors – respond to light energy (e.g.,
retina)
▪ Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals (e.g., smell,
taste, changes in blood chemistry)
▪ Nociceptors – sensitive to pain-causing stimuli
Receptor Class by Location: Exteroceptors

▪ Respond to stimuli arising outside the body

▪ Found near the body surface
▪ Sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
▪ Include the special sense organs
Receptor Class by Location: Interoceptors

▪ Respond to stimuli arising within the body

▪ Found in internal viscera and blood vessels
▪ Sensitive to chemical changes, stretch, and
temperature changes
Receptor Class by Location: Proprioceptors

▪ Respond to degree of stretch of the organs they

occupy
▪ Found in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints,
ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones
and muscles
▪ Constantly “advise” the brain of one’s movements
Receptor Classification by Structural
Complexity

▪ Receptors are structurally classified as either simple

or complex
▪ Most receptors are simple and include encapsulated
and unencapsulated varieties
▪ Complex receptors are special sense organs
Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

▪ Free dendritic nerve endings

▪ Respond chiefly to temperature and pain
▪ Merkel (tactile) discs
▪ Hair follicle receptors
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

▪ Meissner’s corpuscles (tactile corpuscles)

▪ Pacinian corpuscles (lamellated corpuscles)
▪ Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and Ruffini’s
corpuscles
▪ Joint kinesthetic receptors
Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

Table 13.1.1
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.2
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.3
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.4
From Sensation to Perception

▪ Survival depends upon sensation and perception

▪ Sensation is the awareness of changes in the internal
and external environment
▪ Perception is the conscious interpretation of those
stimuli
Organization of the Somatosensory System

▪ Input comes from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and

interoceptors
▪ The three main levels of neural integration in the
somatosensory system are:
▪ Receptor level – the sensor receptors
▪ Circuit level – ascending pathways
▪ Perceptual level – neuronal circuits in the cerebral
cortex
Processing at the Receptor Lever

▪ The receptor must have specificity for the stimulus

energy
▪ The receptor’s receptive field must be stimulated
▪ Stimulus energy must be converted into a graded
potential
▪ A generator potential in the associated sensory
neuron must reach threshold
Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

▪ Adaptation occurs when sensory receptors are

subjected to an unchanging stimulus
▪ Receptor membranes become less responsive
▪ Receptor potentials decline in frequency or stop
Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

▪ Receptors responding to pressure, touch, and smell

adapt quickly
▪ Receptors responding slowly include Merkel’s discs,
Ruffini’s corpuscles, and interoceptors that respond
to chemical levels in the blood
▪ Pain receptors and proprioceptors do not exhibit
adaptation
Processing at the Circuit Level

▪ Chains of three neurons (first-, second-, and third-

order) conduct sensory impulses upward to the brain
▪ First-order neurons – soma reside in dorsal root or
cranial ganglia, and conduct impulses from the skin
to the spinal cord or brain stem
▪ Second-order neurons – soma reside in the dorsal
horn of the spinal cord or medullary nuclei and
transmit impulses to the thalamus or cerebellum
▪ Third-order neurons – located in the thalamus and
conduct impulses to the somatosensory cortex of the
cerebrum
Processing at the Perceptual Level

▪ The thalamus projects fibers to:

▪ The somatosensory cortex
▪ Sensory association areas
▪ First one modality is sent, then those considering
more than one
▪ The result is an internal, conscious image of the
stimulus
Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

▪ Perceptual detection – detecting that a stimulus has

occurred and requires summation
▪ Magnitude estimation – how much of a stimulus is
acting
▪ Spatial discrimination – identifying the site or
pattern of the stimulus
Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

▪ Feature abstraction – used to identify a substance

that has specific texture or shape
▪ Quality discrimination – the ability to identify
submodalities of a sensation (e.g., sweet or sour
tastes)
▪ Pattern recognition – ability to recognize patterns in
stimuli (e.g., melody, familiar face)
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves

▪ Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain

▪ They have sensory, motor, or both sensory and
motor functions
▪ Each nerve is identified by a number (I through XII)
and a name
▪ Four cranial nerves carry parasympathetic fibers that
serve muscles and glands
Cranial Nerves

Figure 13.5a
Summary of Function of Cranial Nerves

Figure 13.5b
Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory

▪ Arises from the olfactory epithelium

▪ Passes through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone
▪ Fibers run through the olfactory bulb and terminate
in the primary olfactory cortex
▪ Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for
the sense of smell
Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory

Figure I from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve II: Optic

▪ Arises from the retina of the eye

▪ Optic nerves pass through the optic canals and
converge at the optic chiasm
▪ They continue to the thalamus where they synapse
▪ From there, the optic radiation fibers run to the
visual cortex
▪ Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for
vision
Cranial Nerve II: Optic

Figure II Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor

▪ Fibers extend from the ventral midbrain, pass

through the superior orbital fissure, and go to the
extrinsic eye muscles
▪ Functions in raising the eyelid, directing the eyeball,
constricting the iris, and controlling lens shape
▪ Parasympathetic cell bodies are in the ciliary ganglia
Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor

Figure III from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear

▪ Fibers emerge from the dorsal midbrain and enter

the orbits via the superior orbital fissures; innervate
the superior oblique muscle
▪ Primarily a motor nerve that directs the eyeball
Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear

Figure IV from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal

▪ Composed of three divisions: ophthalmic (V1),

maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3)
▪ Fibers run from the face to the pons via the superior
orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum (V2), and
the foramen ovale (V3)
▪ Conveys sensory impulses from various areas of the
face (V1) and (V2), and supplies motor fibers (V3)
for mastication
Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal

Figure V from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VI: Abdcuens

▪ Fibers leave the inferior pons and enter the orbit via
the superior orbital fissure
▪ Primarily a motor nerve innervating the lateral
rectus muscle

Figure VI from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VII: Facial

▪ Fibers leave the pons, travel through the internal

acoustic meatus, and emerge through the
stylomastoid foramen to the lateral aspect of the face
▪ Mixed nerve with five major branches
▪ Motor functions include facial expression, and the
transmittal of autonomic impulses to lacrimal and
salivary glands
▪ Sensory function is taste from the anterior two-thirds
of the tongue
Cranial Nerve VII: Facial

Figure VII from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear

▪ Fibers arise from the hearing and equilibrium

apparatus of the inner ear, pass through the internal
acoustic meatus, and enter the brainstem at the pons-
medulla border
▪ Two divisions – cochlear (hearing) and vestibular
(balance)
▪ Functions are solely sensory – equilibrium and
hearing
Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear

Figure VIII from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal

▪ Fibers emerge from the medulla, leave the skull via

the jugular foramen, and run to the throat
▪ Nerve IX is a mixed nerve with motor and sensory
functions
▪ Motor – innervates part of the tongue and pharynx,
and provides motor fibers to the parotid salivary
gland
▪ Sensory – fibers conduct taste and general sensory
impulses from the tongue and pharynx
Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal

Figure IX from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve X: Vagus

▪ The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head

and neck
▪ Fibers emerge from the medulla via the jugular
foramen
▪ The vagus is a mixed nerve
▪ Most motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers to the
heart, lungs, and visceral organs
▪ Its sensory function is in taste
Cranial Nerve X: Vagus

Figure X from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

▪ Formed from a cranial root emerging from the

medulla and a spinal root arising from the superior
region of the spinal cord
▪ The spinal root passes upward into the cranium via
the foramen magnum
▪ The accessory nerve leaves the cranium via the
jugular foramen
Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

▪ Primarily a motor nerve

▪ Supplies fibers to the larynx, pharynx, and soft
palate
▪ Innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid,
which move the head and neck
Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

Figure XI from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

▪ Fibers arise from the medulla and exit the skull via
the hypoglossal canal
▪ Innervates both extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the
tongue, which contribute to swallowing and speech
Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

Figure XII from Table 13.2

Reflexes
Reflexes

▪ A reflex is a rapid, predictable motor response to a

stimulus
▪ Reflexes may:
▪ Be inborn (intrinsic) or learned (acquired)
▪ Involve only peripheral nerves and the spinal cord
▪ Involve higher brain centers as well
Reflex Arc

▪ There are five components of a reflex arc

▪ Receptor – site of stimulus
▪ Sensory neuron – transmits the afferent impulse to
the CNS
▪ Integration center – either monosynaptic or
polysynaptic region within the CNS
▪ Motor neuron – conducts efferent impulses from
the integration center to an effector
▪ Effector – muscle fiber or gland that responds to the
efferent impulse
Reflex Arc

Spinal cord
(in cross-section)
Stimulus
2 Sensory neuron 3 Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron
Skin

Figure 13.14
Stretch and Deep Tendon Reflexes

▪ For skeletal muscles to perform normally:

▪ The Golgi tendon organs (proprioceptors) must
constantly inform the brain as to the state of the
muscle
▪ Stretch reflexes initiated by muscle spindles must
maintain healthy muscle tone
Stretch Reflex

▪ Stretching the muscle activates the muscle spindle

▪ Excited γ motor neurons of the spindle cause the
stretched muscle to contract
▪ Afferent impulses from the spindle result in
inhibition of the antagonist
▪ Example: patellar reflex
▪ Tapping the patellar tendon stretches the quadriceps
and starts the reflex action
▪ The quadriceps contract and the antagonistic
hamstrings relax
Stretch Reflex

Figure 13.17
Golgi Tendon Reflex

▪ The opposite of the stretch reflex

▪ Contracting the muscle activates the Golgi tendon
organs
▪ Afferent Golgi tendon neurons are stimulated,
neurons inhibit the contracting muscle, and the
antagonistic muscle is activated
▪ As a result, the contracting muscle relaxes and the
antagonist contracts
Golgi Tendon Reflex

Figure 13.18
Flexor and Crossed Extensor Reflexes

▪ The flexor reflex is initiated by a painful stimulus

(actual or perceived) that causes automatic
withdrawal of the threatened body part
▪ The crossed extensor reflex has two parts
▪ The stimulated side is withdrawn
▪ The contralateral side is extended
Crossed Extensor Reflex

Figure 13.19
Superficial Reflexes

▪ Initiated by gentle cutaneous stimulation

▪ Example:
▪ Plantar reflex is initiated by stimulating the lateral
aspect of the sole of the foot
▪ The response is downward flexion of the toes
▪ Indirectly tests for proper corticospinal tract
functioning
▪ Babinski’s sign: abnormal plantar reflex indicating
corticospinal damage where the great toe
dorsiflexes and the smaller toes fan laterally