PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS
We know that an atom consists
of electrons, protons and
neutrons. Each electron has a
negative charge and each proton
has a positive charge. A neutron
carries no charge and is
therefore neutral. Electrons may
be added to or taken away from
an atom.
This disturbs the electrical
balance of the atom. If an
atom loses an electron it is left
with an overall positive charge,
since it has a proton in excess
of those needed to balance
the effect of its electrons. Such
a charged atom is called a
positive ion.
If an electron is added to an
atom, it attains a negative
charge. Such a charged atom
is called a negative ion. A
body having a number of
ionised atoms is electrically
charged.
CURRENT
An electric current is the
movement of electric charges
along a definite path. In the
case of a conductor the
moving charges are electrons.
UNIT OF CHARGE
An electric current flows in a
conductor when charge is
transferred from one point to
another in that conductor.
Current is the rate of flow of
charge with time.
The unit of charge in the International
System of Units is the coulomb (C),
which is defined as the charge
transferred by a current of one
ampere in one second.
If Q = charge in coulombs (C),
transferred in t seconds
I = current in amperes (A)
Then
I = Q/t amperes
Q = It
Thus,
1 coulomb = 1 ampere
second
1 C = 1 As
and 1 A = 1 C/s
DIRECTION OF CURRENT
The current results from the
motion of charges. The charge
carriers may be electrons,
holes or ions. The
conventional direction of
current flow is taken opposite
to the direction of electron
drift.
We assume positive direction
of current to the direction in
which the positive charge is
moving.
Thus, when we say that there
is a current of 1 A from a point
a to point b in a conductor. We
actually mean that either
positive charge is moving from
a to b at the rate of 1 C/s or
negative charge is moving
from b to a, at the rate of 1
C/s.
REFERENC E DIRECTION
OF CURRENT
A reference direction is
assigned to current by means
of an arrow, which is drawn
beside a conductor. It is to be
noted that a reference arrow
does not show the direction of
current.
It merely tells about the
reference direction with
respect of which other currents
are specified. By convention,
however, a current is positive
if it is in the direction of the
arrow and negative if it is in
the opposite direction.
Thus, in Figure 1, I = +5A is a
current in the direction of
arrow from a to b, whereas I =
-5A is a current in the direction
opposite to the arrow, that is,
from b to a. In effect both
these currents are equal.
Fig
Fig1.1.
a +I b a b -I
VOLTAGE
Energy is required for the
movement of charge from one
point to another. Let W joules of
energy be required to move
positive charge of Q coulombs
from a point a to point b in a
circuit. We say that a voltage
exists between the two points.
The voltage V is actually moving
from one to the other. Voltage
between a and b is given by:
V= W/Q J/C (1)
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF
A SOURCE.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.)
of a source of voltage is the
energy imparted by the source to
each coulomb of charge passing
through it. Strictly speaking
electromotive force is not a
force, but the energy expended
on each charge.
If:
W = energy imparted by the
voltage source in joules (J)
Q = charge transferred through
the source in coulombs (C)
E = e.m.f. of the source.Then
E = W/Q J/C (2)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The potential difference (p.d.)
between two points is the
energy required to move one
coulomb of charge from one to
the other.
If:
W = energy required to
transfer the charge
Q = charge transferred
between the points
V = potential difference
Then
V = W/Q J/C
VOLTAGE DROP
The voltage drop between two
points of an element is a
decrease in energy in
transferring a charge of one
coulomb from one point to the
other.
Electromotive force, potential
difference and voltage drop are
all measured in units of voltage.
The unit of voltage is the volt (V).
The volt is the voltage between
two points when one-joule (1J)
of energy is required to transfer
1 coulomb (1 C) of charge from
one point to the other.
Thus:
1 volt = 1 joule per
coulomb
1 V = 1 J/C
THE BASIC CIRCUIT
The path of current is called a
circuit. The basic electric circuit is
shown in Figure 2.
It consists of:
(a) a source of energy
(b) a load which utilises the energy
(c) two conductors, connecting the
source and the load to transfer the
energy.
Figure
Figure2:
2:
In Figure 2, the conductor bc is
carrying energy from the source to
the load. It is called the outgoing
conductor. The conductor da is
returning the energy from the load
to the source. It is called the return
conductor. With respect to the
source the conductors and the load
form the external circuit.
The terminal of the source
through which the current
leaves for the external circuit
is called the positive (+)
terminal and the terminal
through which current enters
the source from external circuit
is called the negative (-)
terminal.
The direction of the current is
thus from positive (+) to
negative (-) in the external
circuit and from negative (-) to
positive (+) in the source.
RESISTANCE
Electric resistance is the
property of a material, which
offers opposition to the flow of
electric current. In a conductor
the resistance is due to the
collision between moving
electrons and fixed conductor
ions. Heat is generated because
of these collisions.
In other words, conductors
are heated when they carry
current. The resistance of a
conductor depends upon its
length, cross-sectional area,
material and temperature.
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the current
through any conductor is directly
proportional to the potential
difference between its ends. It is
assumed that the physical
conditions of the conductor do
not change.
OHM’S LAW
• If V = voltage between
the two ends of the
conductor in volts (V) 1
• I = current through I V
the conductor in
amperes (A)
R
• Then I V
V I R (1)
Where R is called the resistance
of the conductor. It is measured
in ohms. The Geek letter Omega
() is used for the symbol of
ohm.
The relationship given by Eq.
(1) is known as Ohm’s law.
From Eq. (1), if V= 1V, I = 1A,
then R = 1 ohm. Thus, a
conductor has a resistance of 1
if a current of 1 A in it
produces a potential difference
of 1V.
Resistance is the electric
property of a material, which
opposes the current. A
physical device, which has the
principal characteristic of
resistance, is called a resistor.
A resistor is an electrical
circuit element.
If a curve is plotted between V
and I is a straight line, as shown
in Figure 3. The curve between
V and I is called the volt-ampere
characteristic. If the resistor
obeys Ohm’s law it is called a
linear resistor. A resistor, which
does not obey Ohm’s law, is a
non-linear resistor.
FIG:
FIG:33
VOLT-AMPERE CHARACHERISTICS
• OPEN CIRCUIT AND
SHORT CIRCUIT
• A circuit element is said to
be open circuited or simply
open if the current through it
is zero regardless of the
voltage across it. Any open
circuit may be considered
as a resistor of infinite
resistance. Therefore by
Ohm’s law
Open and Short Circuits
• A circuit element is said to
be short-circuited or simply
Therefore by Ohm’s Law: shorted if the voltage across
it is zero regardless of the
V V current through it. A short
I 0
circuit may be considered as
a resistor of zero resistance.
R Therefore by Ohm’s law
• V = RI = 0 I = 0
• Whatever be the value of I
Whatever the value of V
CONDUCTANCE
Ohm’s Law can be written as:
• The parameter G is
called the
1 conductance of the
I V conductor. It is the
R
reciprocal of
I GV (4) resistance, that is,
I 1
G (5)
V R
The greater the conductance
of the conductor the more
easily the current passes
through it. In SI the unit of
conductance is the siemens
(S). The circuit symbol for the
conductance is the same as
that for a resistance.
RESISTIVITY OR SPECIFIC
RESISTANCE
Resistance depends upon the
physical properties and dimensions
of a conductor. The resistance R of
a conductor is directly proportional
to its length l in the direction of
current and inversely proportional to
the cross-sectional area a through
which it passes. The temperature is
assumed to be constant.
RESISTIVITY
Mathematically,
• Where the Greek
letter, (rho) is the
l l
R ( 6) proportionality
a a constant at a given
temperature. It is
called the resistivity
or specific resistance
of the conductor
material.
For a cube of a material of 1 m sides, l =
1 m, a = 1 m2. Therefore, if l =1m, a =
1m2, then =R from Eq. (6). Therefore
the resistivity of a material may be
defined as the resistance between the
opposite faces of a cube of the material
of 1 metre sides. It is to be noted that
the resistivity is the resistance of a
metre cube and it is not the resistance
per cubic metre. Thus it is expressed in
ohm-metres (m).
EXAMPLE1
l = 1 km = 1103
• 1. Calculate the resistance of 1 km a = 4.5 (mm)2 = 4.5 (10-3m)2 =
of copper conductor of 4.5-mm2
cross-sectional area. The resistivity
4.510-6m2
of copper is 0.0172 m. = 0.0172 m = 0.017210-6
m
• Solution
• The three quantities , l and a are l 103
expressed in terms of the same unitR 6
0.0172 10 6
3.82
of length. In this problem = a 4.5 10
0.0172 m. Here the unit of
length in is metre (m). Hence in
calculations length l will be
expressed in metres and area in
m2.
EXAMPLE2
Solution
• 2. Compare the diameter For aluminium conductor
of an aluminium
conductor with that of a l1 2
copper conductor for the R1 1 , a1 d1
same length and a1 4
resistance of conductors.
For copper conductor
The resistivities of
aluminium and copper are l2 2
0.0285 m and 0.0178 R1 2 , a2 d 2
m respectively. a2 4
EXAMPLE2
But R1 = R2 and l1 = l2
• Substituting into the
l1 l2 expression for R
1 2
a1 a2
2
1 a1 2 2 d1
d1 d 2
2 a2 4 4 d 2
1 1
d1 1 2
0.0285 10
6 2
6
1.26
d2 2 0.0178 10
Example3 Solution
Let the subscripts 1 and 2
refer to the first and second
• 3. A conductor has a l1
conductors respectively
R1
resistance of 1.5. a1
l2
R2
What is the a2
R2 l2 l1 l2 a1
resistance of a R1 a2 a1
2
l1 a2
a1 d1 , a2 d 22
conductor of the 4 4
a1 2 2 d
2
d1 d 2 1
same material, a2 4 4
1 d
d2
Now, d 2 d1 , 1 2
which has half the a1 d1
2
2
d2
2 4
diameter and three
2
a2 d 2
l
times its length?
Also, l2 3 l1 , 2 3
l1
R2 l2 a1
3 4 12
R1 l1 a2
R2 12 R1 12 1.5 18
Assignment
.In the manufacture of copper wire, a length
of thick circular rod, which has a resistance
of 0.02, is drawn out without change in
volume until its new diameter is one-tenth of
what it was. Calculate the length of the drawn
conductor and its resistance.
.An aluminium conductor 200m long has a
diameter of 2.5mm. If the resistivity of
aluminium is 28.5 mm, calculate the
resistance of the conductor.
Assignment
1. In the manufacture of copper wire, a length
of thick circular rod, which has a resistance
of 0.02, is drawn out without change in
volume until its new diameter is one-tenth of
what it was. Calculate the length of the drawn
conductor and its resistance.
2. An aluminium conductor 200m long has a
diameter of 2.5mm. If the resistivity of
aluminium is 28.5 mm, calculate the
resistance of the conductor.
CONDUCTORS,
SEMICONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS
All materials may be divided into
three categories according to
their ability to conduct current.
(1)Conductors. These are
materials that conduct current
easily.
All materials with resistivity less than
10-3 m are referred to as conductors.
Almost all metals are conductors.
Copper and aluminium conductors are
widely used in practice.
(2)Semiconductors. Semiconductors are
materials with resistivities between 10-3
and 105 m. Germanium and silicon are
examples of semiconductor materials.
(3)Insulators. These are
materials, which do not allow the
current to pass through them. All
materials with resistivity above
10 m fall in the category of
5
insulators. Some examples are
of insulators are mica, paper,
rubber, oil, plastics, porcelain
etc.
Note that the above
classification does not include
superconductors. They are a
group of metals and alloys,
which have zero resistivity, or
infinite conductivity.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
OF RESISTANCE
The resistance of most electrical
materials changes with
temperature. In metallic
conductors resistance increases
with the increase of temperature.
The change in resistance is
uniform over their normal range
of working temperature. The
variation of resistance with
temperature is governed by a
property of material called
temperature coefficient of
resistance ().
The temperature coefficient of
resistance of a material referred
to a base temperature of oC is
defined as the increase in
resistance of a sample having a
resistance of one ohm at Co
when its temperature is raised
by 1 oC. The unit for is ohms
per ohm per degree rise in
temperature.
If the temperature is taken in
degree Celsius ( C) the unit for
o
is // C or simply per degree
o
Celsius (/oC) at base
temperature. In SI, is
expressed / per Kelvin or
simply per Kelvin (/K). The value
of is positive for metallic
conductors.
For semiconductors, insulators,
electrolytes and carbon an
increase in temperature results
in a decrease in resistance. The
temperature coefficients of
resistance of these materials
have negative values.
There are certain alloys such as
constantan, eureka, nickel-
chromium and manganin where
resistance practically remains
constant over normal
temperature changes. Such
materials have practically zero
temperature coefficients.
What can we use such materials
for?
BASE TEMPERATURE
The measurement of the change
in resistance of an electrical
material as a result of
temperature changes is usually
done with respect to a base
temperature.
This is the temperature at which
the initial resistance of the
material is measured before
being subjected to temperature
changes (ambient temperature
measurement). The temperature
coefficient of resistance at this
base temperature must also be
known.
Base Temperature of 0 C o
Let the base temperature at which the
original resistance is measured be 0oC.
Ro = resistance at temperature of
0oC
o = temperature coefficient of
resistance at 0oC
R = resistance at temperature oC
Rise in temperature = - 0 = oC
By definition increase in
resistance of 1 at 0oC by
increase of temperature by 1 oC
is o. Therefore, the increase in
resistance of Ro at 0 C is oRo
0
per degree.
For oC rise of temperature the
increase in resistance is oRo.
Resistance at C
o
= resistance at
0 C + increase in
o
resistance
R = Ro + oRo
R = Ro(1 + o) (7)
Equation (7) gives the variation
of resistance with temperature.
The graph of R versus is a
straight line as shown in Figure7.
Figure 7 Variation of resistance with temperature
Variation of Resistance with
Temperature
• If R1 = resistance at By definition
temperature 1 oC
• R2 = resistance at
temperature 2 oC R1 1 o 1
(8)
• Then from Equation R2 1 o 2
(7)
• R1 = Ro(1 + o1)
Equation (8) is useful when the initial
• R2 = Ro(1 + o2) resistance at 0 0C is not known.
Base Temperature of 1 oC
Sometimes it is difficult to
measure resistances at 0 C, so
o
temperature coefficients of
resistance are often expressed
for other temperatures (1), such
as 20 oC.
In such circumstances the
expression for the resistance of
the material at a different
temperature (say 2) is
R2 = R1 + 1R1 (2 - 1)
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (2 - 1)] (9)
EXAMPLES
Solution
1 = 15 oC, 2 = 47 oC
• 1. The shunt winding of a
R1 = 165 , 0 = 0.00428 /( oC)
d.c. generator has a
resistance of 165 at a Resistance at 47 oC is given by
temperature of 15 oC.
Calculate the resistance 1 0 2
R2 R1
when the temperature has 1 o 1
reached 47 oC. The 1 0.00428 47
165
resistance-temperature 1 0.00428 15
coefficient of copper may 1.20116
be taken as 0.00428 /( 165
1.0642
deg C) at 0 oC.
186.2
EX Solution
1 = 20 oC, 1 = 0.0045/K =
• A 60 W, 240 V 0.0045/oC
incandescent filament R1 = resistance of the
lamp is switched on at 20
oC. The operating
filament of the lamp at 20 oC
temperature of the 2 = 2000oC, R2 = filament
filament is 2000oC. resistance at 2000oC
2 2
Determine the current V V
taken by the lamp at the
P ,R
R P
instant of switching on.
The temperature
coefficient of resistance of (240) 2
the filament is 0.0045 /K. R2 960
60
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (- 2)]
960 = R1 [1 + 0.0045(2000 – 20)]
= R1(1 + 8.91)
EX
• The effect of the increase in
resistance with the increase in
temperature can easily be seen.
The cold resistance of the filament
(i.e., R1) is 96.9 while the hot
resistance (i.e., R2) is 960 . In
960 other words, the hot resistance is
R1 96.9 9.91 times the cold resistance of
9.91 the filament. The change of
Current taken by the lamp at the instant
resistance with temperature may be
of switch on used to determine the average
V 240 temperature rise of a machine.
2.48 A • Table 1 gives temperature
R1 96.9 coefficients of resistance of some
conductors.
Table 1
Material 0 (per oC at 0 oC) 20 (per oC at 20 oC)
Annealed copper +0.0043 +0.00396
Hard-drawn copper +0.0043 +0.00396
Aluminium +0.0040 +0.00370
Iron +0.0066 +0.00583
Silver +0.0041 +0.00379
Nickel-chromium +0.00017 +0.000169
Carbon (graphite) -0.0005 -0.00047
Table 1.
Assignments:
1. A coil has a resistance of 50
at 20 C. If the temperature
o
coefficient of resistance at 15 C
o
is 0.004/K, determine the
resistance of the coil at 85 oC.
2. The temperature rise of a
machine field winding was
determined by the measurement of
the winding resistance. At 20 oC the
field resistance was 150. After
running the machine for 6 hours at
full load the resistance was 175. If
the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the copper winding is
4.3 10-3/K at 0 oC, determine the
temperature rise of the machine.
2. The temperature rise of a
machine field winding was
determined by the measurement of
the winding resistance. At 20 oC the
field resistance was 150. After
running the machine for 6 hours at
full load the resistance was 175. If
the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the copper winding is
4.3 10-3/K at 0 oC, determine the
temperature rise of the machine.
3. A semicircular ring of copper has
an inner radius of 80 mm, radial
thickness 40 mm and axial
thickness 60 mm. Calculate the
resistance of the ring at 50 oC
between its two end faces.
Resistivity of copper at 20 oC is
1.724 10-8 m. Resistance
temperature coefficient of copper at
0 oC is 0.0043/K.
