ANIMAL FORM & FUNCTION

BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
“Form fits Function”
TYPES OF TISSUES
FOUR TYPES OF TISSUES

• Epithelial Tissues
• Connective Tissues
• Muscle Tissues
• Nervous Tissues
A.EPITHELIAL TISSUE

- Generally occurs as sheets of tightly packed

epithelial cell, it covers the outside of the body
(skin or epidermis) and lines of organs and
cavities inside the body (endothelium)

- It is tightly packed because its primary function

is to form a barrier protecting the body from
mechanical injury, invading microorganisms,
ultraviolet light, and loss of fluid.
Besides protection, epithelia functions to:

a. absorb nutrients (e.g. lining of small intestine)

b. lubricate a surface (e.g. mucous membranes of
throat)
c. secrete chemicals for various purposes such as
digestion or regulation – epithelia organized to
perform this function are generally called
glands.
• cuboidal—for
secretion

• simple columnar—
brick-shaped cells;
for secretion and
active absorption

• simple squamous—
plate-like cells; for
exchange of
material through
• stratified squamous
—multilayered and
regenerates quickly;
for protection

• pseudo-stratified
columnar—single
layer of cells; may
just look stacked
because of varying
height; for lining of
respiratory tract;
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUES

- Not tightly packed, but rather cells are

scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
of nonliving material

- Its main function is to bind and support

other tissues .
Principle component of connective tissue is the
fibrous protein collagen.
In connective tissue, two main cell types exist in the
matrix:

a. Fibroblast – secretes collagen

b. Macrophages – amoeboid cells which roam matrix
eating bacteria and dead cells
 Types of Connective Tissues

• Loose Connective Tissue

 Collagenous fibers
 Elastic fibers
 Adipose Tissue
 Blood
• Fibrous, Supporting, and Binding Connective
Tissue
 Tendons
 Ligaments
 Cartilage
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Binds epithelia to underlying tissues, and holds
organs in place

a. Collagenous fibers – do not tear easily; keeps flesh

on bone
b. Elastic fibers (elastin) – resist stretching
c. Adipose tissue – contain cells, which store
fat, bound in a fibrous matrix cells shrink
or swell depending on bodies need for fat.
d. Blood – very different; matrix is a liquid
(plasma). The bone marrow is the source of
cells of the blood. This includes the RBC
(erythrocytes), WBC (leukocytes), and the
platelets (thrombocytes).
FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- are dense, tightly woven and arranged in parallel
bundles, which maximize tensile strength to bend
body parts together
a. Tendons – connect muscle to bone
b. Ligaments – attach bone to bone at joints
c. Cartilage – collagen embedded in a protein-
carbohydrate complex called chondrin
- strong yet flexible
- it is found in nose, outer ear, between vertebrae
d. Bone – the hardest connective tissue
- it is where the most abundant minerals like
calcium phosphate, magnesium, carbonate
and fluoride are present
- generally found in vertebrates and has five
functions:
 supports the body (against gravity)
 serves as attachment point for muscles
 protects organ (e.g. ribcage, skull)
 some bones produced re blood cells
 acts as reservoir for calcium
C. MUSCLE TISSUES

There are three basic type of muscle

tissue:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
 SKELETAL MUSCLE

- attached to bones and

moves the skeleton
- it is called voluntary
muscle because it is
under conscious
nervous control
- also called striated
muscle because of its
striated (striped)
appearance
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
- also known as heart
muscle
- also striated like
skeletal muscle
- the cells only contain a
single nucleus
- it under control of the
autonomic nervous
system (unconscious
control)
 SMOOTH MUSCLE
- lacks the striations of
skeletal muscle
- it is called involuntary
muscle, under autonomic
control and also known as
visceral muscle because
it is the muscle type that
operates in the walls of
hollow structures such as
intestines, uterus, and
stomach.
D.NERVE TISSUES

- are composed primarily of

nerve cells known as
neurons
- they are responsible for the
conduction of nerve
impulses
- the nerve cells must last for
life because they cannot be
replaced
Nervous Tissue—These tissues
are composed of nerve cells
called neurons and glial cells
that function as support cells.
These neurons sense stimuli and
transmit electrical signals
throughout the animal body.
Neurons connect to other
neurons to send signals. The
dendrite is the part of the
neuron that receives impulses
from other neurons while the
axon is the part where the
 Cell Body – contains the
nucleus
 Dendrite – a number of
short fibers extending
from the cell body
(receiver)
 Axon – a single long fiber
responsible for carrying
impulses away from the
cell body
 Axon terminal -
 Myelin Sheath – insulating
fatty layer that speeds
transmission
 Schwann Cells – they
make the Myelin
 Node of Ranvier –where
ion flows across the
membrane
INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
The Integumentary System

The Integumentary System, consisting of the

skin, hair and nails, acts as a barrier to protect the
body from the outside world. It also functions to
retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate
waste products, and regulate body temperature.

The word Integument comes from a Latin word

that means to cover.
SKIN

- largest organ in the body

- forms a protective barrier against the
action of physical, chemical, and bacterial
agents on the deeper tissues and contains
special end organs for the various
sensations commonly grouped as the
sense of touch, temperature, and pain.
Functions

1. Serve as barrier against infection

and injury.
2. Helps to regulate body temperature.
3. Removing waste product from the
body.
4. Providing protection against
ultraviolet radiation.
5. Providing vitamin D.
Structure

• Epidermis
- the outer most layer of the
skin
- composed of many sheets of
flattened, scaly epithelial
cells
- its layers are made mostly of
dead cells
- most of the cells of the
epidermis undergo rapid
Structure
• Keratin
- a tough fibrous protein and
forms the basic structure of
hair, nails and calluses
- as new cells are produced,
they push older cells to the
surface of the skin
- The thickest epidermis is on
palms and soles
 Keratinocytes – cells producing
keratin
Structure

• Melanocytes
- cells that produce melanin
- a dark brown pigment

The amount of melanin

produced in skin depends on
two factors;
 Heredity
 length of time exposed to
UV radiation (tanning)
Structure
• Melanin
- important for protection as
it absorbs ultraviolet from
the sun

 Melanoma Cancer
- to much exposure to sunlight
that damage the DNA in skin
cells
 Freckles
-occur when the melanin is not evenly
distributed in the surface of the skin
Structure

• Dermis
- the innermost thick layer of
the skin of living cells
- it lies beneath the
epidermis and contains
blood vessels, nerve
endings, glands, sense
organs, smooth muscles
and hair follicles
- it helps us to control our
Structure

• Sweat Glands
- it produces the watery
secretions known as sweat,
which contains salt, water
and other compounds
Structure
• Sebaceous Glands (Oil Glands)
- produce oily secretion known as
sebum, which spread out along
the surface of the skin and keeps
the keratin rich epidermis flexible
and waterproof
- are usually connected by tiny
ducts to hair follicles
- sebum coats the surface of the
skin and the shafts of hair,
preventing excess water loss and
lubricating and softening the skin
Structure

• Subcutaneous Layer
- a layer of fat and loose
connective tissue that
insulates the body and acts
as energy reserve.
• If the Ducts of Oil Glands become clogged
with excessive amount of sebum, dead cells,
and bacteria, the skin disorder can result

• If the skin is subjected to pressure, the rate of

mitosis will increase and create a thicker
Epidermis; we call this a callus
 SKIN
DISORDERS
A. Contagious Disorders Caused by
Bacteria or Virus or Fungus

1. Acne – characterized by
plugged hair follicles that
form pimples caused by
bacteria.
 A. Contagious Disorders
Caused by Bacteria or
Virus or Fungus

2. Boils – a painful infection of

hair follicles and sebaceous
glands by staphylococcus
bacteria
 A. Contagious Disorders
Caused by Bacteria or
Virus or Fungus

3. Fever Blisters – caused by

herpes simplex virus and
transmitted by oral and
respiratory exposure.
 A. Contagious Disorders
Caused by Bacteria or
Virus or Fungus

4. Impetigo – a highly
contagious skin infection
caused by bacteria, occurs in
children and characterized by
fluid-filled pustules forming
yellow crust over infected
area
A. Contagious Disorders
Caused by Bacteria or
Virus or Fungus

5. Warts – a small skin tumor

caused by viral infection
that stimulate excessive
growth of epithelial cells
 B. Non-Contagious Skin
Disorders

1. Alopecia – loss of hair that is

most prevalent in males and
inherited
- caused by factors such as poor
nutrition, sensitivity to drugs
and eczema
 B. Non-Contagious Skin
Disorders

2. Eczema – an inflammation
producing redness, itching,
scalding and cracking of
skin
B. Non-Contagious Skin
Disorders

3. Psoriasis – chronic dermatitis

characterized by reddish
raised patches of skin covered
with whitish scales.
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- Responsible for survival and

perpetuation of the species

- Organs of this system produce gametes

that combine in the female system to
produce the next generation
 MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 Testes

- are the organs that

produce the sperm
- located outside the
body and enclosed Epididymis
and protected by a
loose fitting
muscular sac called
scrotum
 Vas Deferens

- expanded extension
of the epididymis
 Urethra

- the duct that is

connected to the
ejaculatory duct and
urinary bladder
- it serves as the
common passageway
for urine and sperm
 Seminal Vesicle
- secrete a thick and
clear fluid that
lubricates and
nourishes the sperm
Prostate Gland
- secrete a milky and
alkaline fluid that
neutralizes the acidity
of the urethra
 Penis

- an organ composed
of erectile tissues
that become
engorged with blood
when the person is
sexually stimulated
 FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 OVARIES

- the site for egg

cell production
FALLOPIAN TUBES

- also known as
oviducts
- function as
passageways for
egg cell
 UTERUS

- also called womb

- the actual site of
pregnancy
Myometrium
- the walls of the uterus
contains a thick layer of
smooth which serve to
expel the fetus

Endometrium
- the inner lining of the
uterus which proliferates
in the preparation for
implantation of the
 Cervix

- the narrow neck

that opens into a
thin-walled canal
 Vagina
- thin-walled but very
strong muscular
chamber that
functions as the birth
canal
- it also accommodate
the penis during
copulation and serve
as the repository of
sperm
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

EPIDIDYMITIS
- an inflammation of the
epididymis
- caused by pathogens
- symptoms are intense pain
in the testes, swelling of
epididymis, and fever
- treatment includes, cold
pack, and pain medication
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

ORCHITIS
- inflammation of the testes
- caused by mumps,
pathogens or injury
- symptoms are pain, fever,
and swelling of scrotum
- the testes can atrophy and
sterility can result
- treatment includes
antibiotics and pain
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

FIBROID TUMORS /
FIBROMYOMAS
- benign tumors of the uterus
- common in women over the
age of fifty
- symptoms may include
bleeding or the growths may
produce no symptoms at all
- surgical removal of tumors is
dictated by the symptoms
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

ENDOMETRIOSIS
- occurs when endometrial
tissue is transferred outside
the uterus
- symptoms include pain and
pressure and abnormal
bleeding
- treatment includes pain
relievers, hormone
treatment or surgical
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

VAGINITIS
- an inflammation of the vagina
and can be caused by
microorganism, viruses,
irritation, or growth on the cervix
or vagina
- symptoms include vaginal
discharge, irritation, and itching
of the vulva
- treatment depends on the cause
 Common Diseases of the Reproductive System

PROSTATE CANCER
- second leading cause of
death of men over the age of
50
- slow growing and may not
be symptomatic for years
- treatment includes surgical
removal of the tumor and
radiation
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction

- the creation of “new

individuals” from existing
individuals
- means of perpetuating the
race of the species whose
life span is finite
 REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL ASEXUAL
 REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL ASEXUAL
Asexual Reproduction

- does not involve the union of

gametes or sex cells
- it is the formation of new
individuals from the cell(s) of
a single parent
- the new individual formed
are exact genetic copies of
the parents
Asexual Reproduction
Common in Some
Organisms
1. BUDDING
- a process wherein a new individual is
formed through formation of a bud,
which in time splits off from the parent
and develops into a new individual

o Buds – are lateral outgrowths formed

when food in the environment is
abundant
 2. FISSION

- a process wherein the body

divides into two (binary fission) or
into many fragments (multiple
fission) and the pieces develop
into new individuals which are the
exact clones of the parent
Binary Fission
Multiple Fission
(Schizogony)
3. FRAGMENTATION

- involves the breaking of any part of

the body or the breaking up of the
entire body into several pieces
- complemented by the process of
regeneration

o Regeneration – the development of

the cut body part into a complete
Fragmentation in Spirogyra
Regeneration in Planaria
Regeneration in Starfish
4. SPORULATION (Spore Formation)

- common among fungi and simple

plants like mosses and ferns

o Spore contains haploid cells

enclosed in thick case and held
together by a structure called
sporangium
5. VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION
- common asexual method of
reproduction in plants

o Corm
o Tuber
o Runner
o Bulb
o Rhizome
6.
GRAFTIN
G
- widely used to propagate
desired varieties of trees
and shrubs
7.
LAYERING
- a process whereby a shoot
of a parent plant is bent
until it can be covered by
soil
MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
Muscular System

- allows movements and locomotion

- produces movements, body heat,
maintains posture, and supports the
body
Qualities of Muscle Cells

1. Contractility – the quality of muscle cells to

become shorter and thicker
2. Elasticity – the quality that allows the
muscle cells to return to their original form
and position
3. Extensibility – the quality that enables the
muscles to be stretched
4. Irritability – the quality that enable the
muscle to respond to outside stimuli such as
MUSCLE TISSUES
There are three basic type of muscle
tissue:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
- attached to bones and
moves the skeleton
- it is called voluntary
muscle because it is
under conscious
nervous control
- also called striated
muscle because of its
striated (striped)
appearance
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
- also known as heart
muscle
- also striated like
skeletal muscle
- the cells only contain a
single nucleus
- it under control of the
autonomic nervous
system (unconscious
control)
 SMOOTH MUSCLE
- lacks the striations of
skeletal muscle
- it is called involuntary
muscle, under autonomic
control and also known
as visceral muscle
because it is the muscle
type that operates in the
walls of hollow structures
such as intestines,
uterus, and stomach.
Classifications of Muscle According to their Action

Animals movement is due to muscle

contractions. Based on the muscle actions, they
are classified as voluntary and involuntary
muscles

• Voluntary Muscle – a muscle which the

contraction is can be controlled by the human
brain. Ex. muscles in the legs and arms
• Involuntary Muscle – a muscle that cannot be
controlled by the conscious state of the person.
Ex. muscles in the stomach and small intestine
 How Heart Muscles Work?

When cardiac muscles contract,

the chambers of the heart are
squeezed. The blood is then forced
but through blood vessels to its
destination. This process allows
blood to be circulated in all the
body parts, which the heart acts as
the body pumping station. The
heartbeat is produced by the
actions of the muscles in the heart.
• Muscle fatigue

- a functional inability of the

muscle cells to contract due to
a relative accumulation of lactic
acid or depletion of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP).
- When ATP is lacking, a state of
continuous contraction occurs
which will lead to severe muscle
cramps
• Oxygen Debt

- a temporary lack of oxygen in

the cell
- results to the accumulation of
metabolic waste in the muscle
fibers leading to muscle fatigue
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Disorders Related to Muscular System

Muscle Atrophy
- occurs to muscle which
are used indifferently
- They shrink in size and
they lose the muscle
strength

Ex. Stroke, where the

muscles are under-
stimulated and gradually
waste away
 Disorders Related to Muscular System

Fibromyositis
- An inflammation of the
tendon as in Charley
Horse
 Disorders Related to Muscular System

Abdominal Hernia
- A rupture that may occur
in a weak place in the
muscular abdominal wall
- It is caused by bulging of
the intestine through an
opening in the abdominal
cavity
 Disorders Related to Muscular System

Muscle Hypertrophy
- A condition in which the
muscle enlarges and
grows stronger.
- It results from
overworking and over-
exercising
- This leads to an increase
in the diameter or the
size of the muscles
 Disorders Related to Muscular System

Muscular Dystrophy
- A group of genetic
diseases that is
characterized by atrophy
of skeletal muscle tissues
- Some forms are fatal
usually due to respiratory
or cardiac muscle
weakness
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
Skeletal System

- provides support and protection ,

attachment points for muscles
- it provides rigid framework for
movement
- it supports and protects the body
parts, produces blood cells and
stores minerals
 STRUCTURE OF BONE

• Periosteum – a thin
connective tissue
that covers the bone
• Spongy Bone –
porous with a web of
hard bone
• Red Marrow – soft
tissue that fills the
spaces
 STRUCTURE OF BONE

• Compact Bone –
thick and dense makes
up the shaft of long
bones; it is a living
tissue
• Yellow Marrow – the
central cavity
containing a dense
fatty material; it
contains bone cells
(osteocytes), blood
vessels, and nerves
 Parts of the Vertebrate Skeleton

A. Axial Skeleton
- consists of the skull (cranium and lower jaw),
vertebral column, ribcage, and sternum

B. Appendicular Skeleton
- composed of pectoral girdle (shoulder
blades, collar bone) which articulate
(connects to) arm bones and the pelvic
girdle (3 partly fused bones – ilium, ischium,
and pubis) which articulates with the leg
 Joints and Their Movements

Joint – the region where bones meet which allows

certain types of movement

1. Suture Joints – fixed that do not allow any

movement like the joint in the skull.
2. Ball and Socket Joints – allow circular movement
located in the hip and shoulder
3. Hinge Joint – are restricted to move only a single
plane like the joint in the elbows, fingers and
knees
4. Pivot Joint – allows several movements like the
Diseases and Disorders related to Skeletal System
Diseases and Disorders related to Skeletal System
Diseases and Disorders related to Skeletal System

SCURVY
Diseases and Disorders related to Skeletal System
Diseases and Disorders related to Skeletal System

POLIOMYELITIS