ENGLISH FOR

ACADEMIC AND
PROFESSIONAL
PURPOSES

11 TDVG
11 CFF1
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
 Old English usually refers to the period in the history of the English
language covering the years from 449 (or 450) to 1100 (or 1150).
 Around the year 450, England was invaded by the Germanic tribes
(the Angels, the Saxons, and the Jutes). These Germanic tribes are
regarded as “the founders of The English nation” [Albert C. Baugh
and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language (London:
Routledge, 2002)].
 The account of these invasions is found in the Benedictine monk
Bede’s work Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which was
completed in 731 (Baugh and Cable 2002). The earliest records of
the language date back to about 700.
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

 Middle English covers the period from 1100 (or 1150) to 1500.
William of Normandy, a French territory, conquered England in 1066.
The French rule brought change to the English language. The Anglo-
Saxons chronicle existed until 1154. By that time, the English
language had taken on new futures different from the ones of Old
English.
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

 Modern English covers the period 1500 to the present in the history
of the English language. The introduction of the movable printing
process into England by William Caxton in 1476 made possible the
production of uniform copies of big numbers of books. The increase
in the number of schools, in literacy production, and in travel and
explorations brought change to the language from the time of the
Renaissance in the 1500s.
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

 The Anglo-Saxon is the term that came about with reference to the
Teutonic tribes that invaded England. The term is often used to refer
to “the earliest period of English” (Baugh and Cable 2002).
 Indo-European language is the family of languages to which English
belongs.
 The Celts were “the original inhabitants of the British Isles before the
arrival of the Romans” [Phillip, The Story of English (London:
Quercus, 2009)].
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

 Dialectis a variation of a language.

 Case is the choice of form depending on the function of words
(nouns, pronouns, adjectives) in the sentences in an inflected
language.
 Standardization suggests an “ideal” norm or model of usage.
 Mutually intelligible language indicated that the language are distinct
from each other and are not dialects of the same language.
ACADEMIC TEXT

 An academic text is a kind of text that is commonly

characterized with being formal, studied, researched,
objective, exact, direct, and has the ability to influence
its readers.

 Moreover, an academic text is written with precise

organization in order to help its readers to have a basic
understanding of what the author’s arguments are that
include the writer’s insights.
 The Structure of Academic
Texts

An important feature of academic texts is that they are organized in a

specific way
 The Structure of the Entire Text
and of Each Section
Most academic texts in the
sciences adhere to the model
called IMRAD, which is an
acronym for introduction, methods
and materials, results, and
discussion.
The model should, however, be complemented with
sections for aims and research questions, as these make
up the very backbone of an academic text in the sciences.
These often appear towards the end of the introduction, but
sometimes also after a separate heading.
 Aim

 The aim determines the entire academic text and the content found in
each section. The aim captures what you intend to achieve with your
study.
 Research questions

 The aim is often rather general, and may have to be narrowed down with
research questions. In other words, research questions are specific
questions that enable you to reach your aim.
 Introduction

 In order to make your delimited research interesting to

others, however, you must place it in a larger context. For
that reason, the introduction of the text must start with
something much more general than your research
questions. It is often said that the introduction should be
shaped like a funnel (as it is in the IMRAD model above).
 - The introduction should provide everything the
reader needs to know in order to understand your aim as
well as why the aim is important. Convincing your reader
that your aim is important often entails showing that there
is something we do not know, but that we would benefit
from knowing
 Methods and Materials

 In the methods section you should show your reader

exactly how you have conducted your research, that is,
what you have done to fulfill your aim and answer your
research questions. First, your reader should understand
how you got the results you did, and second, after reading
this section, they should be able to duplicate your
research.
 Results

 In the results section you should account for your results in an objective
manner, without interpreting them (interpreting your results is what you
do in the discussion part). If you posed several research questions, you
should account for the results in the same order that you posed your
research questions; the consistency will help make the text coherent and
help your reader understand the information you are presenting.
 Discussion

 The discussion section of your text is where you interpret

your results for your reader. It is the section of your text
that is usually most difficult to write, for here you are
not merely writing about something that you have already
done, you have to write and analyse at the same time. All
parts of your discussion should analyse your results.
 Conclusion

 In your conclusion you should fulfill your aim and account for what you
have found in your study. When you write your conclusion you have a
golden opportunity to make sure that all the sections of your thesis are
connected and that the focus is consistent in each section.
 Please remember that the conclusion is not merely a brief repetition of
your results. Focus instead on what your results may imply after careful
consideration (the consideration that you outlined in your discussion).
Academic reading is an act of performance
Reading is fundamental to writing and research at
University, but often gets overlooked – lecturers assume
that students know how to read, and students
assume there’s only one way to read – but neither of
these things is necessarily true! There are ways to read
that can improve information processing, can help with
building an argument, and importantly for many students,
can save lots of time!!
---- Academic Literacy Workshops, University of
Cape Town
Purposes of Academic
Reading
 Information comes from reputable sources: Web
sites and blogs can be a source of insight and
information, but not all are useful as academic
resources. They may be written by people or companies
whose main purpose is to share an opinion or sell you
something. Academic sources such as textbooks and
scholarly journal articles, on the other hand, are usually
written by experts in the field and have to pass stringent
peer review requirements in order to get published.
Purposes of Academic
Reading
 Learn how to form arguments: In most college
classes except for creating writing, when instructors ask
you to write a paper, they expect it to be argumentative
in style. This means that the goal of the paper is to
research a topic and develop an argument about it
using evidence and facts to support your position. Since
many college reading assignments (especially journal
articles) are written in a similar style, you’ll gain
experience studying their strategies and learning to
emulate them.
Purposes of Academic
Reading
 Exposure to different viewpoints: One purpose
of assigned academic readings is to give
students exposure to different viewpoints and
ideas. For example, in an ethics class, you
might be asked to read a series of articles
written by medical professionals and religious
leaders who are pro-life or pro-choice and
consider the validity of their arguments. Such
experience can help you wrestle with ideas
and beliefs in new ways and develop a better
understanding of how others’ views differ from
your own.
Reading Strategies for
Academic Texts
 Preview: You can gain insight from an academic text
before you even begin the reading assignment. For
example, if you are assigned a nonfiction book, read the
title, the back of the book, and table of contents.
Scanning this information can give you an initial idea of
what you’ll be reading and some useful context for
thinking about it. You can also start to make
connections between the new reading and knowledge
you already have, which is another strategy for retaining
information.
Reading Strategies for
Academic Texts
 Read: While you read an academic text, you should
have a pen or pencil in hand. Circle or highlight key
concepts. Write questions or comments in the margins
or in a notebook. This will help you remember what you
are reading and also build a personal connection with
the subject matter.
Reading Strategies for
Academic Texts
 Summarize: After you an read academic text, it’s worth
taking the time to write a short summary—even if your
instructor doesn’t require it. The exercise of jotting down
a few sentences or a short paragraph capturing the
main ideas of the reading is enormously beneficial: it not
only helps you understand and absorb what you read
but gives you ready study and review materials for
exams and other writing assignments.
Reading Strategies for
Academic Texts
 Review: It always helps to revisit what you’ve read for a
quick refresher. It may not be practical to thoroughly
reread assignments from start to finish, but before class
discussions or tests, it’s a good idea to skim through
them to identify the main points, reread any notes at the
ends of chapters, and review any summaries you’ve
written
Reading Strategies for
Specialized Texts and Online
Resources
 Get to Know the Conventions
 Look up and Keep Track of Unfamiliar Terms and Phrases
 Look for Main Ideas and Themes
 Get the Most of Online Reading
 Look for Reputable Online Sources
 Pay Attention to Visual Information
 Vocabulary-Building
Techniques
 Read Everything and Read Often
 Make Connections to Words You Already Know
 Make Index Cards
What is a Thesis Statement?

 The thesis statement is the sentence that states the main

idea of a writing assignment and helps control the ideas
within the paper. It is not merely a topic. It often reflects an
opinion or judgment that a writer has made about a reading
or personal experience.
What Makes a Strong Thesis
Statement?
 A strong thesis statement gives direction to the paper and
limits what you need to write about. It also functions to
inform your readers of what you will discuss in the body of
the paper. All paragraphs of the essay should explain,
support, or argue with your thesis.

 A strong thesis statement requires proof; it is not merely a

statement of fact. You should support your thesis
statement with detailed supporting evidence will interest
your readers and motivate them to continue reading the
paper.
These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own
writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the
source writing.

 Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of

the source. They must match the source document word for word and must
be attributed to the original author.

 Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your

own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source.
Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a
somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

 Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words,
including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute
summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly
shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.
Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve
many purposes. You might use them to:

 Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing

 Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
 Give examples of several points of view on a subject
 Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or
disagree with
 Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or
passage by quoting the original
 Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to
cue readers that the words are not your own
 Expand the breadth or depth of your writing
PARAPHRASING

 Paraphrasing is one way to use a text in your own

writing without directly quoting source material. Anytime
you are taking information from a source that is not your
own, you need to specify where you got that
information.
A paraphrase is...

 Your own rendition of essential information and ideas

expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
 One legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate
documentation) to borrow from a source.
 A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses
concisely on a single main idea.
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

 It is better than quoting information from an

undistinguished passage.
 It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
 The mental process required for successful
paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full meaning of the
original.
6 Steps to Effective Paraphrasing
 Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
 Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
 Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you
envision using this material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or
phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
 Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version
accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.
 Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have
borrowed exactly from the source.
 Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can
credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
Example:

 The original passage:

 Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a
result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably
only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly
quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of
exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester,
James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed., 1976, pp. 46-47.

 A legitimate paraphrase:
 In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep
quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually
originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material
recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).
SUMMARIZING

 Summarizing, like paraphrasing, is a technique used to

obtain the essential part of an original source. In other
words, it is a concise statement of the most important
points taken from another text. It is a good technique to
use when writing a research paper.
Important things to remember when
summarizing an article are the following
• Read the text until the meaning or main idea of the passage is clear.

• Put the original text away to discourage any similarities between the summary and the
source. Use your own words!

• Be concise. Use only the central points of the source, anything that is not relevant to the
main point should not be considered.

• Avoid being repetitive.

• It helps to use a highlighter or red pen to indicate the most important points of the article.

• Juxtapose your summary with the original text. If they look the same then it’s not really a
summary.
Example
 Original Source

 Unfortunately, many people don’t take notes effectively. Some try to

write down everything a speaker says. They view note taking as a
race, pitting their handwriting agility against the speaker’s rate of
speech. As the speaker starts to talk, the note taker starts to write.
But soon the speaker is winning the race. In a desperate effort to
keep up, the note taker slips into a scribbled writing style with
incomplete sentences and abbreviated words. Even this is not
enough. The speaker pulls so far ahead that the note taker can
never catch up. Finally, the note taker concedes defeat and spends
the rest of the speech grumbling in frustration.
 MLA Sample
 Ineffective note taking becomes a problem during a
speech. Often it leads to confusion and writing
verbatim what the speaker is stating. This may result
in a lack of sufficient information recorded on page
(Lucas, 69).

 APA Sample
 Ineffective note taking becomes a problem during a
speech. Often it leads to confusion and writing
verbatim what the speaker is stating. This may result
in a lack of sufficient information recorded on page
(Lucas, 1998).
What is text annotation?
Textbook annotation is part of a system of textbook marking that
involves the reader (the student...you!) in:
 1. Writing brief summaries in the text’s margins
 2. Listing or numbering multiple ideas (causes, effects, reasons,
characteristics)
 3. Sketching pictures and charts to explain difficult processes/
concepts
 4. Predicting & writing possible test questions
 5. Noting puzzling or confusing ideas that need clarification by
the professor
 6. Underlining key ideas or concepts
What will text annotation do for me?
Text annotation can have several advantages for the reader
(you!). It will:
1.Improve your concentration so you will not become
distracted and have to reread the text.
2. Provide an immediate self-check for your understanding of
the text’s key ideas.
3. Help you remember more.
4. Assist you in getting ready for tests on the material.
5. Negate the need of time spent in rereading the chapters.
6. Help you state ideas in your own words.
 How should I text annotate?
Here are some steps to applying annotation to texts:

1. Skim through the chapter. Note the organization of the chapter (are there
subheadings, pictures, graphs, etc.)
2. Skim the introduction, THEN the conclusion, before reading the entire chapter. This
will help you get a sense as to what exactly you should know before diving in and
reading.
3. Read one or more paragraphs. Then STOP. The amount of text you can read will
vary from text to text, according to difficulty and organization.
4. Think about the key ideas that you have read—what is the author arguing, or how is
the author supporting the argument?
5. Briefly write the key ideas in the margin, looking for the following:
• Definitions • Examples • Lists • Causes and effects • Characteristics •
Likenesses/differences • Names or dates or other important information
6. Check your annotations to be sure that they make sense to you.
7. Go on to the next section or paragraph. Remember, not every paragraph will have a
key concept that should be annotated, but every page or section usually does.