ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals,
and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all the
non-living physical factors of the environment.

According to British ecologist Arthur Tansley (1935), an

ecosystem is a system that arises from the integration of all living
and non-living factors of the environment.

 An ecosystem is a self-sustained community of plants and

animals existing in its own environment.

 The term ecosystem may be defined as a system resulting from

the integration of all the living and non living factors of the
environment. Desert, Forest, Ocean, Grasslands, Mountains,
etc. are all ecosystems.
 What is an ecosystem?

Ecosystem is a system of living things that

interact with each other and with the
physical world.
Classification of ecosystem
 Kinds of Ecosystems

Natural Ecosystems Man-made Ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystems

Fresh water Ecosystems Marine Ecosystems

Lentic Ecosystems Lotic Ecosystems

(Static water) (Running water)
 Structure of an Ecosystem

Living (Biotic) Components

 Producers
 Consumers
 Decomposers

Non-living (Abiotic) Components

 Physical factors
 Chemical factors
 Limiting factors
 Biotic Components of Ecosystems

Producers (or autotrophs)

Green plants and some bacteria which manufacture their own food.

Consumers (or heterotrophs)

Animals which obtain their food from producers

 Primary consumers
 Secondary consumers
 Tertiary consumers

Decomposers

Bacteria and fungi that decompose dead organic matter and convert it
into simpler parts
 Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem

Physical Factors Rainfall

Sunlight
Humidity
Temperature
Nature of soil
Water currents

Chemical Factors Salinity of Water

Nutrients present in soil
Oxygen dissolved in water
Percentage of water and air in soil

Limiting Factors Food, water, shelter and space are

limiting factors for the growth of
population of human and
animals.
 Functions of an Ecosystem

 Food chain and food web

 Energy flow

 Ecological pyramids
 Food Chain

The transfer of food energy from the source (plants) through a series of
organisms by repeated eating and being eaten up is referred to as food
chain.
 Food Web

The interlocking pattern formed by several food chains that are linked
together is called a food web.
 Food Chain

 A series of organism
by repeated eating
and being eaten up
is referred as food
chain.
Types:
 Grazing food chain-a
common chain
 Detritus food chain-
chain derived by the
organic wastes and
dead matter from
grazing food chains
The process of eating and being eaten
Grazing and Detritus Food Chain

Grazing Food Chain

Detritus (Dead organic matter) Food Chain

 Food Chains and Webs
You will see the terms food chains and
food webs. They describe the same series
of events that happen when one organism
consumes another to survive.
 THE PRODUCERS
Producers are the beginning of a
simple food chain. Producers are plants and
vegetables.
 THE PRODUCERS

 All energy comes from the

Sun and plants are the
ones who make food with
that energy. They use the
process of photosynthesis.

 Plants also make

nutrients for other
organisms to eat.
 The Consumers

Consumers are the next link in a food

chain. There are three levels of
consumers.
 FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

A food chain shows a simple feeding relationship.

Sun → grass → rabbit → fox

Note: All food chains start with the sun

All food chains start with
ENERGY from the sun
 Biomagnification

“Result of the process of bioaccumulation and bio-

transfer by which tissue concentrations of chemicals in
organisms at one trophic level exceed tissue
concentrations in organisms at the next lower trophic
level in a food chain.”
OR

Biomagnification refers to the accumulation of toxins

through the trophic levels of a food chain. It results in an
increased concentration of the toxin in the higher
organisms of the food chain.
In biomagnification the concentration of the persistent toxins (crosses)
increase higher up the food chain.
 A build- up of DDT concentration

 Biomagnification of DDT was observed in some birds like as Osprey, in

the results of sharp decline in their population.

 The young ones of these bird were found to hatch in a premature

condition which led to their death.

 This was later found to be due to biomagnification of DDT through the

food chain.

 DDT is one of the pesticide, a chemical used to control pests in very

low concentration.

 The concentration of DDT was magnified several thousands times in

the birds which caused thinning of shells in the birds eggs, causing
deaths.

 Means, animals occupying higher trophic levels are at a greater risk of

biomagnification of toxic chemicals.
 Food web
Intermixing of food chains
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

First Law of Thermodynamics: energy can neither be created nor

destroyed but only is transformed from one form to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics: the second law of

thermodynamics states that no energy transformations are 100%
efficient.

10 Percent Rule of Energy

As a rule of thumb, 90 percent of the energy involved is degraded
at each trophic transfer and only 10 percent of the energy is
conserved in the organism's tissue.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Energy flow in ecosystem and 10% Rule
 Ecological Pyramid

The graphical representations of different trophic levels in an

ecosystem where producers occupy the base and the top
consumer occupy the apex of the pyramid, is known as ecological
pyramid .

They are used to illustrate the feeding relationships between

organisms.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

 Pyramid of number

 Pyramid of biomass

 Pyramid of energy
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Food chains and food webs do not give any

information about the numbers of organisms
involved.

 This information can be shown through ecological

pyramids.
 Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of number is used to show the number of individuals in
each trophic level.

It is upright in case of grassland and pond ecosystems.

 Pyramid of Biomass

Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of organisms at

each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem.

The pyramid of biomass is used to show the total biomass of

individuals at each trophic level.

It is better than the pyramid of number for showing the relationships

between organisms.
 Ecological Pyramids

tertiary
consumers 75 g/m2

secondary 150g/m2
consumers

primary
consumers 675g/m2

producers 2000g/m2
 Pyramid of energy

 Pyramid of energy is used to show the amount of energy

transferred between trophic levels. It provides the best
representation of the overall nature of an ecosystem.

 The pyramid of energy flow is always upright because there is

always loss of energy while moving from lower trophic level to
higher trophic level.

 The energy reaching the next trophic level is always less

compared to that in the previous trophic level.
 Energy Pyramid

In nature,
ecological
efficiency varies
from 5% to 20%
energy available
between
successive trophic
levels (95% to 80%
loss). About 10%
efficiency is a
general rule.
 Ecological Pyramids

energy
lost

energy transferred
 Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems

change and develop over time. It is therefore a series of
predictable temporary communities or stages leading up to a
climax community. Each stage/temporary community is called a
successional stage. Each step prepares the land for the next
successional stage. All habitats are in the state of constant
ecological succession.

Environment is always kept on changing over a period of time due

to…

variations in climatic and physiographic factors, and

activities of the species of the communities themselves.

Ecological Succession is an orderly sequence of different

communities over a period of time.
 Types of ecological succession

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

Primary succession is the process by which an area first

changes from bare rock into a functioning ecosystem.

Secondary succession is the process by which an already

existing plant community is replaced by another plant
community.
 Primary Succession

 The development of an
ecosystem in an area that has
never had a community living
within it occurs by a process
called PRIMARY SUCCESSION.

 An example of an area in which

a community has never lived
before, would be a new lava or
rock from a volcano that makes
a new island.

40
Primary succession is the process by which an area first
changes from bare rock into a functioning ecosystem.
 Secondary Succession
 SECONDARY SUCCESSION begins in habitats where
communities were entirely or partially destroyed by some kind
of damaging event.

 When an existing community has been cleared by a

disturbance such as a fire, tornado, etc...and the soil remains
intact, the area begins to return to its natural community.
Because these habitats previously supported life, secondary
succession, unlike primary succession, begins on substrates
that already bear soil. In addition, the soil contains a native
seed bank.

 Since the soil is already in place, secondary succession can take

place five to ten times faster than primary succession.
42
Secondary succession is the process by which an ecosystem that
has been destroyed gradually returns to its previous state.
The Circle of Life in Secondary Succession

44
 The Climax Community

 A climax community is a mature, stable community that is

the final stage of ecological succession. In an ecosystem
with a climax community, the conditions continue to be
suitable for all the members of the community.

 Any particular region has its own set of climax species,

which are the plants that are best adapted for the area
and will persist after succession has finished, until
another disturbance clears the area.

45
These are Climax Communities

46
Process / Stages of Ecological Succession

Nudation- Succession begins with the development of a bare site,

called Nudation (disturbance).

Invasion
•Migration- It refers to arrival of propagates (seeds), dispersion.
•Ecesis- It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
•Aggregation- It involves increase in number of species.

Competition- As vegetation became well established, grew, and

spread, various species began to compete for space, light and
nutrients. This phase is called competition.

Stabilization- Reaction phase leads to development of a climax

community.
 Study of some common ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystem
Grassland ecosystem
Desert ecosystem
Forest ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem
Pond ecosystem
Ocean ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
Inorganic and organic substances
found in the soil, climatic factors, e.g.,
temperature, humidity, rainfall, and
light.
Biotic Components
Producers
Different kinds of trees depending upon the climate

Consumers
Different kinds of primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers,
e.g., deer, elephant, moles, snakes, lizards, lion, and tiger

Decomposers
These are various kinds of bacteria and fungi
 Grassland ecosystem

All grasslands in the world are categorize into the following two
types:

Tropical grasslands- closets to equator and are hot throughout

the year.

Temperate grasslands- farther from the equator and have both

hot summers and harsh winters.
 Grassland Ecosystem

Abiotic Components

Inorganic elements (C, H, O, N, P, S), climatic components,

temperature, rainfall, light, etc.
Biotic Components
Producers
Mainly grasses with a few scattered trees

Consumers
Deer, rabbit, giraffe, etc., are herbivores,
while wolf, leopard, etc., are carnivores

Decomposers
Mainly bacteria and fungi
 Desert Ecosystem

Abiotic Components

Low rainfall, high temperature, and

sandy soil

Biotic Components
Producers
Predominantly thorny shrubs, cactus, etc.

Consumers
Different insects, lizards, reptiles, nocturnal rodents, birds, etc.

Decomposers
Various bacteria and fungi
Pond and Ocean Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
It includes organic and inorganic
substances, atmospheric gases dissolved in
water, minerals found in dissolved state,
etc.
Biotic Components

Producers
Submerged floating and emergent aquatic plants For example,
nelumbo, hydrilla, chara, etc.
Consumers
May be primary, secondary, or tertiary, e.g., small fishes, beetles,
mollusca, crustaceans, etc.
Decomposers
Chiefly bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, etc.