Ballistics
Dr. Walker
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Ballistics
• Ballistics
– Science that deals with the motion, behavior, and
effects of projectiles (bullets, rockets, missiles)
• Forensic Ballistics
– Scientific analysis and interpretation of evidence
related to the illegal use of firearms
– Deals with motion, behavior, and effects of a
bullet fired from a gun
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Ballistic Properties
• Velocity
– Speed
• Kinetic Energy
– Energy due to motion
• Trajectory
– Flight path of bullet
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Back to Explosives…
• Black Powder
– Invented 1000 years ago in China
– Consists of
• Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
• Charcoal (carbon)
• Sulfur
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History
• Black Powder
– Wasn’t used in guns until the 14th century.
– First projectile weapons using gunpowder were
cannons
• Were not accurate
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Cannons
• Metal tube with a closed end and an open
end. The closed end has a small fuse hole.
• Bore – open end of the cannon
• Breech – rear part of the bore (cannonball and
powder sit here)
• Fuse – length of flammable material
– Runs from outside cannon to gunpowder
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Why guns work
• Black Powder is ignited by a source
– Source depends on weapon
• Chemical reaction causes formation of large
amount of gas
• Pressure from the buildup of gas forces the
projectile (bullet, cannonball, etc.) from the
weapon
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The next step
• The next step -- when projectile weapons were
made small enough for one person to handle.
• Long guns: Guns that needed two hands (and
possibly a wooden support) to handle.
• Handguns: Guns that could be used with one
hand.
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Loading Early Guns
• Muzzleloaders
– Weapons that are loaded by putting the powder
and the lead ball into the firing end (or muzzle) of
the gun.
– The gun is fired by a flint held in a vise striking
metal, creating hot sparks that ignite the black
powder in the flash pan.
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Lack of Accuracy
• Early guns were not accurate
– Random spin on projectile
– Random spin, random trajectory
• Initial attempts to improve the accuracy of
guns – lengthening the barrel
– Made them harder to carry
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Another Strategy
• The principle behind a shotgun
– Firing multiple projectiles made it more likely one
of them would hit something.
– The projectiles from a shotgun move out in a
widening circle, giving the shooter a better chance
of hitting the target.
– The projectiles still have a random spin.
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Gauge
• Gauge
– The diameter of a shotgun barrel
– Originally measured by how many lead balls
weighing a total of 1 lb could fit into the diameter
of the shotgun barrel.
• For example: 12 lead balls (1/12 lb) could fit
into the barrel of a 12 gauge shotgun.
– The actual diameter of a shotgun barrel actually
decreases as the gauge increases.
http://www.hunter-ed.com/wa/course/3-10_gauge_sizes.htm
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Modern Physics and Guns
• It was discovered that spinning a projectile in
a direction perpendicular to the flight plan
(like the spiral of a football) causes it to travel
in a straight line.
• Sometime in the 15th century, gun
manufacturers started putting grooves in the
smooth bores of musket barrels.
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Modern Physics and Guns
• The grooves that twist as they run the length
of the barrel are called rifling. It is the rifling
of the barrel that distinguishes a rifle from a
musket or shotgun
• Military weapons did not contain rifling until
the 19th century
Rifling
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Caliber
• Land – the original, raised surface of the barrel
• Groove – the interior of the barrel where
metal has been cut away.
• The caliber is the inside diameter of a gun
barrel from land to land.
Caliber of Weapons
Land to Land Diameter Caliber
0.22 in 22
0.357 in 357
0.44 in 44
0.45 in 45
9 mm (0.35 in) 9 mm
Rifle and Handgun Calibers
Handguns
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Revolvers
• A revolver uses a cylinder or wheel to hold the
ammunition.
• Each time the trigger is pulled, a new round is
rotated into the firing position.
• Two types
– Single-action revolver needs to have the hammer
pulled back each time it is fired.
– Double-action revolver, the hammer is pulled back
automatically each time the trigger is pulled.
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Revolvers
• Less accurate
– Has weak points that allow gases to escape
causing….
– Slower muzzle velocity and less range
http://science.howstuffworks.com/revolver2.htm
http://www.hunter-ed.com/wa/course/4-3_parts_handgun_flash.htm
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Semi-Automatic Weapons (Pistols)
• Contains slide on top of firearm
• Magazine – holding device for bullet cartridge
• Loaded into handle of pistol
• For semi-automatic weapons, single and double action
refers to the same information
• Single – requires the slide to be pulled back
• Double – squeezing the trigger pulls the slide back
automatically
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Advantages of Pistols
• Magazines carry more bullets
• 10-16 rounds per magazine, 6 for revolver
• Faster firing rates
• Faster reloading
– Single magazine versus individual rounds in
revolver
Semi-Automatic Weapons
http://www.hunter-ed.com/wa/course/4-
6_actions_semiautomatic.htm
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Rifles
• Designed to be fired from the shoulder, as
opposed to a handgun
Types of Rifles
• Bolt Action
• Automatic
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Bolt-Action Rifles
• Characterized by a handle on the side that
allows the user to extract a spent cartridge
and place a new one into the barrel from the
magazine by sliding the bolt back into place
http://www.info4guns.com/graphics/gun_parts_bolt_action_rifle.gif
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Bolt-Action Rifles
• Longer cartridges than in a handgun
– More gunpowder
– Higher muzzle velocity and kinetic energy
– Muzzle velocity
• Standard issue .40 caliber pistol = 305 m/s
• Police sniper .308 bolt-action rifle = 792 m/s
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Bolt-Action Rifles
• Flatter trajectory than pistols
• Increases comparable range
– When fired parallel to ground
• Pistol range about 200 yards
• Some high caliber rifle ammo: range = 5 miles!!
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Automatic Rifles
• Also known as assault rifles
• Can fire a continuous stream of bullets with each pull of
the trigger
• Accurate up to 500-600 yards
• Most common models
– AK-47 (Russian), M-16 (US Military), AR-15 (Law enforcement)
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Shotguns
• Contain no rifling
• Inside of barrel is smooth
• Spray of multiple projectiles
• Minimal control over path
• Increasing area of coverage increases chance
of hitting a target
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Shotguns
• Effective range of buckshot shells = 60 – 100
feet
• Slug – lead bullet about the size of a thumb
– Effective range = 300 feet
– Very powerful at short distances
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Shotguns
• Break action
– Hinged where barrel and chamber meet
• Pump action
– Contain movable slide (fore-end)
– Ejects anything in chamber, cocks hammer, and
moves new shell into chamber
Shotguns
Break-Action Pump Action
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Sawed-Offs
• Shortened to 18 inches or less by….sawing off
the end
• Why do this?
– Easier to conceal
– Less recoil
– More spread of ammo
• Illegal in most circumstances
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Shotgun Evidence
• The pellets from shotguns do not come in
contact with the barrel of the shotgun.
– They are held in a plastic cup or sleeve until they
exit the gun barrel.
• The pellets don’t pick up any striations that can
be used to tell from which barrel they were
fired.
• The diameter of a pellet can be measured to
determine the type of shotgun ammunition
used (birdshot, buckshot, etc.)
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Shotgun Evidence
• Rule of Sixes
– Used to estimate the distance for a shotgun
wound.
– Six feet or less—the wound appears as a single,
round hole.
– Distance < 6 yds, the wound appears as a central
hole with many small pellets around it.
– Distance > 6 yds, the wound appears as a series of
small pellet holes.
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Average Velocity
• Velocity
– Distance/Time
– V = D/T
– Solve
– “Plug and Chug”
– Put in known, solve for unknown
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Manufacturing
• Specific tools are required to cut grooves into the
metal of a barrel
• This tool is called a cutter
• Before cutters were invented, each groove had to
be individually cut into the barrel
– VERY labor intensive
– HIGH possibility of error
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Cutters
• Cutters are usually made of tungsten carbide
– Harder than steel (or other barrel material)
• This process leaves microscopic scratches (striation
marks).
• When the lead of a bullet moves through the barrel,
it picks up these striation marks, which allows
forensic investigators to identify the weapon.
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Milling
• Milling involves the use of rotating
multitoothed cutters moved into the
workpiece, allowing for a wide variety of
cutting operations.
– Leaves lots of striation marks
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Forensic Ballistics
• Sources of evidence
– Matching bullet to weapon it was fired from
– Trace analysis of gun residue (GSR) found on a
suspect
– Tracing shell casings left at a crime scene to a
particular firearm
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Internal Ballistics
• Study of evidence produced inside the
firearm when a bullet or round is fired
– Firearm mechanisms
– Gun barrel manufacturing techniques
– Firearm recoil
– Factors affecting internal gas pressure
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External Ballistics
• Study of a bullet’s flight after it leaves the
muzzle of a firearm
• Most common examinations
– Reconstructing bullet trajectories
– Determining maximum range of a given bullet
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Terminal Ballistics
• Study of effect of a bullet on a target
• Common examinations
– Determining distance between firing point and target
– Establishing whether a particular bullet caused a
particular wound
– Determining caliber and type of bullet that caused
damage
– Identifying entry and exit points of bullet in body or target
– Examining ricochet possibilities of fired bullets
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Wound Ballistics
• Analysis of nature of a wound caused by a
particular bullet
• Bullets spin as they travel through the air
– As it slows down, bullets become less stable
– Can tumble end over end after breaking skin
• Common in M-16 ammo
• Causes more damage in the body
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Wound Ballistics
• Cavity
– Wound created by bullet hitting (living) target
– Cavity can be 30 times as wide as the bullet’s path
– Cavity will partially close after bullet passes
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Wound Ballistics
• Amount of damage from bullet proportional
to kinetic energy transferred to body
– Less damage if bullet retains enough energy to
cause exit wound
– More damage if bullet is lodged in the body
• Type of ammo makes a difference….
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Wound Ballistics
• Elastic tissue
– Lung tissue
• Suffers less damage
• Inelastic tissue
– Bone
• Very dense
• Bullet more likely to fragment
– Liver, spleen, kidney
• Very little give, causes more damage
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Bullet Types
• Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP)
– Metal core
– Expands upon entry
– Not allowed for military use
– Are allowed for police use in most jurisdictions
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Bullet Types
• Full Metal Jacket (FMJ)
– Metal jacket
– Lead Core
– Non-expanding
– Used by US Military in accordance with Geneva Convention
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Geneva Convention
• Geneva Convention
– Adopted in 1949
– International Rules of Warfare
– States that militaries may not use expanding
bullets, which increase injuries and suffering
compared to non-expanding bullets
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Bullet Types
• Armor Piercing
– Steel or tungsten alloy
– Covered by lead + copper or brass jacket
– Can penetrate certain body armor
– AKA “cop killers”
• From left
• Hollow Point .22
• FMJ .44
• Hollow Point .40
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Ballistic Fingerprinting
• Involves identification of unique marking on
bullets and cartridge casings that have been
located at crime scenes
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Evidence Collection
• Lift gun w/ 2 fingers on butt
• Only lift when no one in front of muzzle
• DO NOT stick a pencil or stick in the barrel!
– Changes striation mark pattern – no more match
• Place paper underneath to collect any falling
debris such as hair, fiber, powder, etc
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Evidence Collection
• Preliminary Fingerprint Examination
– Keep powder from getting into barrel!
• Unload gun before transporting to lab
• DO NOT PACKAGE IN PLASTIC, package bullets
separately
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Weapon Identification
• Ways to identify weapons:
– Cutting can be twisted to the
right or left
– Can have different numbers of
lands and grooves
– Can have different rates of
twist
• How many times the
grooves twist inside the
barrel
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How Firearm Evidence is Left
• Firing pin strikes base of bullet (primer),
detonating primer
• This ignites the gunpowder
• Expansion of gases forces casing against the
breech, which resists rearward movement and
propels bullet down the barrel
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How Firearm Evidence is Left
• Bullet picks up tiny imperfections from the
bore as it passes through
• (Striations: from lands and grooves)
• Imperfections are individual to a specific
firearm
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Testing Questioned Bullets
• A gun must be test fired and a side-by-side
match of the two bullets made using a
comparison microscope.
• The striation marks caused by each gun barrel
are unique and can be used to identify from
which gun a bullet was fired.
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Ballistics Testing
• The guns are fired into a large metal tank,
roughly 2’ x 5’ x 8’, filled with water.
• The water stops the bullet, fired at an angle of
30 degrees into the surface of the water
without causing any damage.
– No markings other than striation marks
– Take a picture for evidence and comparison!
• After test-firing, the lid of the tank is removed
and the bullet is collected.
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Ballistics Testing
• The bullet recovered from the tank and the
question bullet are put under the two stages
of a comparison microscope and rotated until
the lands and grooves match.
• If the lands and grooves do not match, the
two bullets were obviously not fired by the
same gun.
Ballistics Testing
• The technician then looks to see if the
striation marks on each bullet match.
• If they do not, the bullet may need to be
rotated and compared again.
• The bullet may need to be rotated as many
times as there are lands.
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Firing Pin Impressions
• Left during discharge
• Pin creates microscopic features in indentation
when it strikes the primer on a cartridge
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Other Markings
• Ammunition Stamps
– Contains information about ammunition stamped
onto base of cartridge casing by manufacturer
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What if…
• A criminal destroys part of a weapon?
– In most states, the central police lab has an
inventory of different types of weapons that can
be used to reconstruct any missing or broken parts
of a gun that must be test-fired.
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NIBIN
• National Integrated Ballistic Identification
Network
• Developed by the FBI and ATF.
• Computer database with images of fired
bullets and fired cartridge cases from crime
scenes and test-fired firearms.
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Gunshot Residue (GSR) Evidence
• Consists of gunpowder and primer residues that
are ejected from the gun when the weapon is fired
• Difficult to remove from body and clothing
• NOT water soluble!
• Consist of:
– Gun powder (charcoal, sulfur, KNO3, nitrocellulose)
– Primer (Lead, Mercury, Barium, Potassium, Antimony)
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Gunshot Residue (GSR) Evidence
• GSR travels a maximum of 3 to 5 feet from the
weapon
• The closer the victim is to the weapon, the more
concentrated the GSR will be on the victim
• GSR comes from several places in the weapon
– Will be deposited on hand of shooter, shooter’s
clothing
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Gunshot Residue (GSR) Evidence
• Contact Shot
– Typical with suicides, execution-style murders
– Weapon in contact with victim
– GSR can blow through the wound tract
– Heat from the blast may burn skin; star shaped wound
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Gunshot Residue (GSR) Evidence
• Near Contact Shot
– Heavy GSR concentration on victim
– Stripling on victim
• Small abrasions caused by unburned powder and metal
fragments striking the skin
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Tests for GSR
• Paraffin Test
– Hands of suspected shooter are coated in a layer
of paraffin wax
– When wax cools, casts are removed and tested
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Gunshot Residue (GSR) Evidence
• Tests for GSR
– Sodium Rhodizonate
• Tests for lead, barium
– Modified Greiss Test
• Tests for nitrites
– Harrison-Gilroy Test
• Tests for antimony
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Validity of GSR Testing
• Does not absolutely prove a suspect has fired a
weapon during a crime
– May have been near someone who has fired a
weapon (secondary transfer)
– May have fired a weapon legally, not during a crime
• Need multiple pieces of evidence
– Three or more elements from GSR
– OR combination with fingerprints from weapon with
positive ballistics match
Sources
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/dfaaaa768b2f4246ae75 /
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/89ef0322968742fbbd44 /
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/b7ce9b47f2934625a2fd /
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/501d477487774085ab42
/
• http://www.schooltube.com/video/599ef0c2ba7844c383a5/
• http://www.nij.gov/training/firearms-
training/module01/fir_m01.htm
