Human Factors and Pilot
Performance
Section 1
Human Physiology and the affects
of altitude
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• Often shortened to “Human Performance”
• The exam is 30 mins, 16 questions, need to get 12 right
• Quite simple but need to know subject – not more than 4
answers wrong or FAIL
• Three sessions/sections
• 1.Human Physiology and the affects of altitude
• 2. Seeing, Hearing, Fitness
• 3. Brain and information processing
• Based on Thom Vol 6. Will refer to specific sections
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
•
• 1.1. Nervous system Thom Fig 1.1
•
• Central nervous system – brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous system – all nerves running off or to spinal cord
•
• These operate in three different ways:
• Autonomic Nervous system – automatic controls – e.g heartbeat, peristalsis, sweating, blushing
• Motor Nervous system – nerves that consciously control muscle movements.
• Sensory Nervous system – nerves that send sensations (heat, cold, pain, sound etc) to the brain,
which may send motor signal to appropriate muscles in response. e.g fight or flight response
(run or interact with e.g.
• fight/eat/have sex with
• More about brain control mechanisms in Section 3.
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.2 Circulatory System (Cardiovascular system)
• Heart – central pump
• Arteries – take blood from heart to organs ) BLOOD
• Veins - bring blood back to heart ) VESSELS
•
• Note: Pulmonary Artery takes blood from the lungs to the heart
• Pulmonary Vein takes blood from the heart to the lungs
•
• Blood – CORPUSCLES , red and white cells.
• RED cells transport OXYGEN round the body (HAEMOGLOBIN – iron rich). Used to produce energy by
“burning” sugars in the different muscles and organs.
• WHITE cells (many different types) mainly concerned with protection against foreign substances (VIRUSES,
BACTERIA).
• PLASMA salty fluid, corpuscles suspended in it.
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.3 BLOOD VESSELS
• ARTERIES and VEINS are big ones, but these get smaller in the different organs and tissues and end up as
• CAPILLARIES. These make sure there is an efficient blood supply and removal system to organs and tissues
• Simple system above is SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION.
Note: In tissues, where arterial and venous capillaries meet, blood goes from Arteries to Veins (higher
pressure in Arteries)
• PULMONARY CIRCULATION.
• Local circulation of blood to and from the lungs
• VENOUS (“used”) blood pumped from heart via PULMONARY ARTERY to the lungs,
• CARBON DIOXIDE is removed and OXYGEN added
• Oxygenated blood returns through the PULMONARY VEIN to the HEART
• Then recirculates round the body through the ARTERIES.
Human factors and pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.4 HEART – see Thom Fig 1.2.
• Left side of midline, just below breastbone. Contracts as a unit. Pumps blood through non-return valves.
Special groups of muscle cells contract together.
• 4 chambers 2 each side.
• Left – receives venous blood coming back from organs/extremities, pumps it to lungs
• Right – receives oxygenated blood from lungs, pumps it into main artery or aorta
• BLOOD PRESSURE.
• Measure of pressure of blood against walls of the main arteries(elastic)
• Highest when heart is contracting (SYSTOLIC pressure)
• Lowest when resting (not contracting – DIASTOLIC pressure)
• Varies with age. Increases as get older (arteries “ harden” – walls lose elasticity.).
• Expressed as mm mercury, systolic/diastolic. Typical normal values are 120/80. Limiting values for pilots
under JAR is160/95 – medically unfit if above this.
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.4 Respiration
• RESPIRATION.
• Brings in oxygen, removes carbon dioxide, according to reaction below:
• Sugar + oxygen(O2) carbon dioxide (CO2) + water
• (cells) (blood brings) (blood takes away)
• This is INTERNAL RESPIRATION
• EXTERNAL RESPIRATION is a continuous process involving lungs, where
CO2 is given out and fresh O2 taken (Thom 1.3)
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.5 Lungs
• STRUCTURE (Thom 1.3, 1.4)
• In chest cavity, one each side, surrounded by rib cage
• Open to atmosphere at top (windpipe)
• Muscle across the bottom (diaphragm)
• Windpipe divides into increasingly small tubes (bronchii, bronchioles)
• These terminate in air sacs (alveoli) which have CAPILLARIES that transport blood to and
from the alveoli
• O2 diffuses through alveolus wall into capillary, CO2 goes other way
• Both are following concentration gradients
Human Factors and Pilot Performance
• 1. Human Physiology
• 1.6 BREATHING MECHANISM
• Diaphragm goes down, rib cage (chest cavity) expands
• air is drawn IN through the bronchii etc
• Diaphragm goes up, rib cage (chest cavity) contracts
• air is forced OUT
• Lung capacity ca. 5L but only 0.5 L replaced with each breath.
• Small amount of gas exchange due to importance of CO2 in keeping blood pH balance
• Therefore amount is kept nearly constant in lungs
• The amount of CO2 in blood varies with muscular activity
• To cope with this, breathing rate is controlled by blood CO2 content (higher O2, faster breathing rate)
Flying and Altitude
• Composition of dry air: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% other
gases (carbon dioxide 0.03%)
• Total air pressure falls with altitude, (approx 1hp/30 ft).
• Relative composition stays constant
• Can have oxygen deficiency at high altitudes
• Additional supply of oxygen essential over 10,000 ft (legal
requirement)
Note: Air also contains variable amounts of water vapour –
varies with temperature and altitude.
Flying and Altitude
LACK OF OXYGEN (HYPOXIA) SYMPTOMS
• Due to deficient oxygen supply to • False sense of security and
brain.
wellbeing
• Onset of symptoms depends of
pilot’s condition as well as altitude • Faulty judgement
e.g. smoker, unfit, tired can be as low • Clumsiness
as 4000ft.
• No smoking in cabin! Be fit! Use • Headache
oxygen if necessary! • Blurred vision
• May also be caused by inability of
• Rapid pulse
blood to carry enough oxygen
(anaemic hypoxia) which may be • Blue lips/fingers
due to carbon monoxide poisoning
(see below)
Flying and Altitude
Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
Affect of sudden failure of oxygen supply
Altitude Moderate Activity Minimal Activity
22000 ft 5 mins 10 mins
25000 ft 2 mins 3 mins
28000 ft 1 min 1.5 mins
30000 ft 45 secs 75 secs
35000 ft 30 secs 45 secs
40000 ft 12 secs 15 secs
Flying and Altitude
• Other effects of altitude/flying
Barotrauma
• pain caused by trapped gases
• Gases trapped in your body expand with altitude – stomach,
guts, sinuses, middle ear, decaying tooth.
• Blocked Eustachian tube (links middle ear to back of throat,
discomfort/pain often sensed on descent from high altitudes, e.g
on commercial flight). Due to unequal air pressure on each side
of eardrum. Chewing, swallowing or yawning usually gives
relief.
• Unwise to fly with headcold, sinusitis etc
• Decompression sickness.
• caused by gases dissolved in the blood – pain in joints
• Example: divers, if they surface too rapidly (and/or fly too
soon after diving)
• Dissolved gases released can cause severe pain, especially in
joints (the bends)
• Depends on depth dived to. General rule
• - don’t fly within 12 h of a shallow dive (less than 30ft (10m))
• - don’t fly within 24h (or more) if surfacing from a greater
depth
Flying and Altitude
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning.
• Usually from engine exhaust via cabin heating system
• Very dangerous – colourless, tasteless and odourless (but
usually accompanied by other exhaust gases which have
odour e.g. nitrogen oxides)
• Reacts with haemoglobin in blood and prevents oxygen
attaching to it
Flying and Altitude
• SYMPTOMS of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
• headache etc.
• blurred vision
• impaired judgement and memory
• slower breathing
• loss of muscle power
• convulsions
• coma and death
•
• Note: no blues (lips may turn cherry red)! No euphoria!
• Remedy – shut off cabin heat, open fresh air vents/windows, land ASAP
• Useful – have carbon monoxide sensor in cockpit (turns brown if CO
present)
Flying and Altitude
• HYPERVENTILATION.
• Shallow overbreathing – usually due to anxiety
or fear
• often cumulative (anxiety overbreathing
breathlessness greater anxiety etc).
• Due to CO2 balance being upset.
Flying and Altitude
• HYPERVENTILATION Symptoms.
• Numbness and tingling of extremities
• Palpitations, ringing in ears
• Faster pulse
• Sweating
• Blurred vision
• Dizziness/fainting/unconsciousness
• REMEDY
• Slow person down (talk down, reassure)
• Breathe into a bag (increases carbon dioxide in blood)
• Give person something to do (take mind off whats making them anxious or afraid)
Flying and Altitude
Another altitude affect
• Blocked ears – due to unequal pressure each side of eardrum
(blocked Eustachian tube).
• Often associated with a cold, hayfever, sinusitis etc (variation on
barotrauma) and linked to rapid descent.
REMEDY
Chewing or swallowing usually relieves the pressure, but it will
gradually return to normal anyway
