Coherence Bandwidth (BC)
– Range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat (i.e. channel passes all spectral components
with equal gain and linear phase).
– It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread.
– Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are
affected quite differently by the channel.
f1
Receiver
f2
Multipath Channel Frequency Separation: |f1-f2|
1
Coherence Bandwidth
Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <= Cr1, r2 <= 1.
If we define Coherence Bandwidth (BC) as the range of frequencies over which
the frequency correlation is above 0.9, then
1
BC is rms delay spread.
50
If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of frequencies over which
the frequency correlation is above 0.5, then
1
BC
5
This is called 50% coherence bandwidth.
2
Coherence Bandwidth
• Example:
• For a multipath channel, is given as 1.37s.
• The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5 =
146kHz.
– This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter to
a receiver, the range of transmission frequency (channel
bandwidth) should not exceed 146kHz, so that all frequencies
in this band experience the same channel characteristics.
– Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
– This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel
(30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not enough for a
GSM channel (200kHz needed per channel).
3
Coherence Time
• Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth
describe the time dispersive nature of the
channel in a local area.
• They don’t offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by relative motion of
transmitter and receiver.
• Doppler Spread and Coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
4
Doppler Spread
• Measure of spectral broadening caused by
motion
• We know how to compute Doppler shift: fd
• Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the
maximum Doppler shift: fm = v/
• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than BD then effect of Doppler spread
is negligible at the receiver.
5
Coherence Time
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse response
is essentially invariant.
If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the baseband signal
bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than the signal will distort, since
channel will change during the transmission of the signal .
TS Coherence time (TC) is defined as:
TC TC 1
fm
f2
f1
t1 t=t2 - t1 t2
6
Coherence Time
0.423
Coherence time is also defined as: TC 9
16f m2
fm
Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with a time
separation greater than TC are affected differently by the channel.
7
Types of Small-scale Fading
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tİme Delay Spread)
Flat Fading Frequency Selective Fading
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel 1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period 2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)
Slow Fading
Fast Fading
1. Low Doppler Spread
1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
signal variations
8
Flat Fading
• Occurs when the amplitude of the received
signal changes with time
• For example according to Rayleigh Distribution
• Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted
signal is much larger than the Delay Spread of
the channel
– Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.
• May cause deep fades.
– Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.
9
Flat Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,
TS
0 TS 0 0 TS+
Occurs when: BC: Coherence bandwidth
BS << BC BS: Signal bandwidth
and TS: Symbol period
TS >>
: Delay Spread
10
Frequency Selective Fading
• Occurs when channel multipath delay spread
is greater than the symbol period.
– Symbols face time dispersion
– Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
• Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the
channel impulse response.
11
Frequency Selective Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,
TS
0 TS 0 0 TS TS+
Causes distortion of the received baseband signal
Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Occurs when:
BS > BC As a rule of thumb: TS <
and
TS <
12
Fast Fading
• Due to Doppler Spread
• Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
• The channel changes during a symbol period.
• The channel changes because of receiver motion.
• Coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period
of the transmitter signal
Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal
BS < BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS > TC
TC: Coherence Bandwidth
13
Slow Fading
• Due to Doppler Spread
• Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is much smaller than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal
BS >> BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS << TC
TC: Coherence Bandwidth
14
Different
T
Types of Fading
S
Flat Fast
Flat Slow
Fading
Fading
Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Slow Fading Fast Fading
TC
TS
Transmitted Symbol Period
With Respect To SYMBOL PERIOD
15
Different Types of Fading
BS
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Fast Fading Slow Fading
Transmitted
Baseband BC
Signal Bandwidth
Flat Fast Flat Slow
Fading Fading
BD
BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth
With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
16
Fading Distributions
• Describes how the received signal amplitude changes
with time.
• Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple
signals arriving from different directions, phases and amplitudes.
• With the received signal we mean the baseband signal, namely
the envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
• Its is a statistical characterization of the multipath
fading.
• Two distributions
– Rayleigh Fading
– Ricean Fading
17
Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions
• Describes the received signal envelope
distribution for channels, where all the
components are non-LOS:
• i.e. there is no line-of–sight (LOS) component.
• Describes the received signal envelope
distribution for channels where one of the
multipath components is LOS component.
• i.e. there is one LOS component.
18
Rayleigh Fading
19
Rayleigh
Rayleigh distribution has the probability density function (PDF) given by:
r2
r
e
2 2
p ( r ) 2
(0 r )
0 ( r 0)
2 is the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection.
is the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection
Remember: P (average power) Vrms
2
(see end of slides 5)
20
Rayleigh
The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a
specified value of R is given by the CDF:
R R2
P ( R ) Pr (r R ) p(r )dr 1 e 2 2
rmean E[r ] rp (r )dr 1.2533
0
2
rmedian
1
rmedian 1.177 found by solving
2 p(r )dr
0
rrms 2
21
Rayleigh PDF
0.7
0.6
mean = 1.2533
median = 1.177
0.5
variance = 0.4292
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1
2
3
4
5
22
Ricean Distribution
• When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS
signal present, then the envelope distribution
is Ricean.
• The Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh when the dominant component
fades away.
23
Level Crossing Rate (LCR)
Threshold (R)
LCR is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading
envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified
threshold level R in a positive going direction.
direction It is given by:
2
N R 2 f m e
where
R / rrms (specfied envelope value normalized to rms)
N R : crossings per second
24
Average Fade Duration
Defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.
For Rayleigh distributed fading signal, it is given by:
1
NR
Pr[ r R]
1
NR
1 e 2
2
e 1 R
,
f m 2 rrms
25
