10.

1 Parametric Functions
In chapter 1, we talked about parametric
equations.
Parametric equations can be used to describe
motion that is not a function.

x  f  t y  g  t
If f and g have derivatives at t, then the
parametrized curve also has a derivative at t.
 10.1 Parametric Functions
The formula for finding the slope of a
parametrized curve is:
dy
dy dt This makes

dx dx sense if we
dt think about
canceling dt.
 10.1 Parametric Functions
The formula for finding the slope of a parametrized
curve is:
dy
dy
 dt We assume that the
dx dx
denominator is not
dt zero.
 10.1 Parametric Functions
To find the second derivative of a parametrized
curve, we find the derivative of the first derivative:
dy
2
d y d dt
 y  
dx 2
dx dx
1. Find the first derivative (dy/dx). dt
2. Find the derivative of dy/dx with respect to t.
3. Divide by dx/dt.
 10.1 Parametric Functions
d2y
Find 2
as a function of t if x  t  t 2
and y  t  t 3
.
dx
 10.1 Parametric Functions

d2y
Find 2
as a function of t if x  t  t 2
and y  t  t 3
.
dx
1. Find the first derivative
(dy/dx).
dy
dy 1  3t 2
y   dt 
dx dx 1  2t
dt
 10.1 Parametric Functions
2. Find the derivative of dy/dx with respect to t.

dy d  1  3t  2  6t  6t
2 2

   
 1  2t 
2
dt dt  1  2t 

Quotient Rule
 10.1 Parametric Functions
3. Divide by dx/dt.
dy ' 2  6t  6t 2

 1  2t 
2 2
d y dt
 
dx 2
dx 1  2t
dt
2  6t  6t 2

 1  2t 
3
 10.1 Parametric Functions
The equation for the length of a parametrized
curve is similar to our previous “length of curve”
equation:

2 2
b  dx   dy 
L      dt
a
 dt   dt 
10.1 Parametric Functions
1. Revolution about the x-axis  y  0
2 2
b  dx   dy 
S   2 y      dt
a
 dt   dt 
2. Revolution about the y-axis  x  0
2 2
b  dx   dy 
S   2 x      dt
a
 dt   dt 
10.1 Parametric Functions

This curve is:

x  t   t  sin 2t
y  t   t  2 cos  5t 
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Quantities that we measure that have magnitude but
not direction are called scalars.

Quantities such as force, displacement or velocity

that have direction as well as magnitude are
represented by directed line segments.

B terminal
point
 
initial AB The length is AB
point
A
10.2 Vectors in the Plane
B terminal
point

AB
A initial
point

A vector is represented by a directed line segment.

Vectors are equal if they have the same length and

direction (same slope).
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
y
A vector is in standard position if the
initial point is at the origin.  v1 , v2 
x

The component form of this vector is: v  v1 , v2

 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
y
A vector is in standard position if the
initial point is at the origin.  v1 , v2 
x

The component form of this vector is: v  v1 , v2

The magnitude (length) of v  v1 , v2 is: v  v12  v2 2
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane

(-3,4)
The component form of

P PQ is: v  2, 2
(-5,2)
Q

v
(-2,-2)
 2    2 
2 2
v 

 8 2 2
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

If v  1 Then v is a unit vector.

0, 0 is the zero vector and has no direction.

 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Vector Operations:
Let u  u1 , u2 , v  v1 , v2 , k a scalar (real number).

u  v  u1 , u2  v1 , v2  u1  v1 , u2  v2
(Add the components.)

u  v  u1 , u2  v1 , v2  u1  v1 , u2  v2
(Subtract the components.)
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

Vector Operations:

Scalar Multiplication: ku  ku1 , ku2

Negative (opposite): u   1 u  u1 , u2

 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Let u  2,  1 and v  5,3 . Find 3u  v.

3u  3  2  , 3  1 = 6,  3
3u  v = 6,  3  5,3  6  5, 3  3  11, 0
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane

A vector u with | u | 1 is a unit vector. If v is not the zero vector

v 1
0,0 , then the vector u   v is a unit vector in the direction
|v| |v|
of v.
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane

Find a unit vector in the direction of v  2,  3 .

v  2,  3  2   3  13, so
2
2

v 1 2 3
 2,  3  , 
v 13 13 13
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

u v
u + v is the resultant vector.
u+v

v (Parallelogram law of addition)

u
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

The angle between two vectors is given by:

u1v1  u2 v2
  cos 1

u v

This comes from the law of cosines.

See page 524 for the proof if you are interested.
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
The dot product (also called inner product) is defined as:

u  v  u v cos  u1v1  u2 v2
Read “u dot v”

This could be substituted in the formula for the angle

between vectors to give:
 uv 
  cos  1

u v
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Find the dot product.
4,3  1, 2

4,3  1, 2  (4)(1)  (3)(2)  10

 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Find the angle between the vectors u  3, 2 and v  1, 0 .
 uv 
  cos 
1

u v 
 3, 2  1, 0 
  cos 
-1

 3, 2 1, 0 
 
 
 3 
 cos -1


 13  1 
 

 33.7 
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
Application: Example 7
A Boeing 727 airplane, flying due east at 500 mph in still air,
encounters a 70-mph tail wind acting in the direction of 60o
north of east. The airplane holds its compass heading due
east but, because of the wind, acquires a new ground speed
and direction. What are they?
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

E
u
10.2 Vectors in the Plane

v
60o
E
u
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane

We need to find the magnitude

and direction of the resultant
vector u + v.
v
u+v
E
u
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
N
The component forms of u and v
are:
u  500, 0
v  70 cos 60 , 70sin 60 v
70
v  35,35 3 u+v
E
500 u
Therefore: u  v  535,35 3
35 3
    tan
2 1
u  v  5352  35 3  538.4 535
 6.5 
 10.2 Vectors in the Plane
N

538.4
6.5o
E

The new ground speed of the airplane is about 538.4 mph,

and its new direction is about 6.5o north of east.
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
Any vector v  a, b can be written as a linear
combination of two standard unit vectors.
i  1, 0 j  0,1

v  a, b The vector v is a linear combination

 a, 0  0, b of the vectors i and j.

 a 1, 0  b 0,1 The scalar a is the horizontal

component of v and the scalar b is
 ai  bj the vertical component of v.
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions

g  t j
r t

f  t i r t  f  t i  g  t j

If we separate r(t) into horizontal and vertical

components, we can express r(t) as a linear combination
of standard unit vectors i and j.
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
Let A = (-2,3) and B = (4,6)

Find AB in terms of i and j

AB = <6,3> = 6i + 3j
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions

In three dimensions the component form becomes:

r t  f  t i  g  t j h t k
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
Most of the rules for the calculus of vectors are the same as
we have used, except:

Speed  v  t  “Absolute value” means

“distance from the origin” so we
must use the Pythagorean
theorem.
velocity vector v t
Direction  
speed v t
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
r  t    3cos t  i   3sin t  j

a) Find the velocity and acceleration vectors.

dr
v   3sin t  i   3cos t  j
dt
dv
a   3cos t  i   3sin t  j
dt

b) Find the velocity, acceleration, speed and direction

of motion at t   / 4 .
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
r  t    3cos t  i   3sin t  j

dr dv
v   3sin t  i   3cos t  j a   3cos t  i   3sin t  j
dt dt
b) Find the velocity, acceleration, speed and direction
of motion at t   / 4 .

      3 3
velocity: v     3sin  i   3cos  j   i j
4  4  4 2 2
      3 3
a
acceleration:      3cos i
  3sin  j   i j
4  4  4 2 2
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
b) Find the velocity, acceleration, speed and direction
of motion at t   / 4 .
  3 3   3 3
v    i j a    i j
4 2 2 4 2 2

2 2
    3   3  9 9
speed: v        3
4  2  2 2 2

v   / 4 3 / 2 3/ 2   1 i  1 j
direction:  i j
v   / 4 3 3 2 2
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
a) Write the equation of the tangent where t  1.
dr
   
r  t   2t  3t i  t  12t j v  t  
3 2 3
dt
   
 6t 2  6t i  3t 2  12 j

At t  1 : r  1  5i  11j v  1  12i  9 j

 5,11 9 3
position: slope: 
12 4
y  y1  m  x  x1 
tangent:
3 3 29
y  11    x  5  y  x
4 4 4
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
b) Find the coordinates of each point on the path where
the horizontal component of the velocity is 0.

The horizontal component of the velocity is 6t 2

 6t .

6t  6t  0
2
r  0   0i  0 j  0, 0 
t t  0
2

r  1   2  3 i   1  12  j
t  t  1  0
r  1  1i  11j  1, 11
t  0, 1
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
a) Write the equation of the tangent where t = 1.

r(t) = (2t2- 3t)i + (3t3- 2t)j v(t) = (4t - 3)i + (9t2 - 2)j
At t = 1 r(1) = -1i + 1j v(1) = 1i + 7j
7
position: (-1,1) slope:
1
y  y1  m  x  x1 
tangent:
y  1  7( x  1) y  7x  8
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
b) Find the coordinates of each point on the path where
the horizontal component of the velocity is 0.

The horizontal component of the velocity is 4t - 3 .

3  3
2
3   3
3
 3 
4t – 3 = 0 r   2   3 i  3   2  j
 4    4   4    4   4 
3
t  3    9    15   9 15 
4 r     i     j   , 
 4    8    64   8 64 
 10.3 Vector-valued Functions
dr
 ( sin t )i  (cos t ) j, r(0) j Find r
dt
r   ( sin t )i  (cos t ) j

r  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j C r  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j  j  i

j  (cos 0)i  (sin 0) j C r  (cos t  1)i  (sin t  1) j
j i C C  j i
 10.4 Projectile Motion
One early use of calculus was to study projectile motion.

In this section we assume ideal projectile motion:

Constant force of gravity in a downward direction
Flat surface
No air resistance (usually)
 10.4 Projectile Motion
vo

We assume that the projectile is launched from the origin

at time t =0 with initial velocity vo.

Let vo  v o
then v o   vo cos   i   vo sin   j

The initial position is: ro  0i  0 j  0

 10.4 Projectile Motion
vo

Newton’s second law

of motion:
f  ma
2
d r
f m 2 Vertical acceleration
dt
 10.4 Projectile Motion

vo

Newton’s second law The force of gravity is:

of motion:
f   mg j
f  ma
2
d r
f m 2 Force is in the downward direction
dt
 10.4 Projectile Motion
vo

Newton’s second law The force of gravity is:

of motion:
f   mg j
f  ma
2
d r
f m 2 d r2
dt m 2   mg j
dt
 10.4 Projectile Motion
vo

Newton’s second law The force of gravity is:

of motion:
f   mg j
f  ma
2
d r
f m 2 d r2
dt m 2   mg j
dt
 10.4 Projectile Motion
2 Initial conditions:
d r dr
2
  g j r  ro  vo when t  o
dt dt
dr
  gt j  v o
dt
1 2
r   gt j  v ot  ro
2
1 2
r   gt j   vo cos   t i   vo sin   t j 0
2
 10.4 Projectile Motion

1 2
r   gt j   vo cos   t i   vo sin   t j  0
2
Vector equation for ideal projectile motion:

 1 2
r   vo cos   t i    vo sin   t  gt  j
 2 
 10.4 Projectile Motion
Vector equation for ideal projectile motion:

 1 2
r   vo cos   t i    vo sin   t  gt  j
 2 

Parametric equations for ideal projectile motion:

1 2
x   vo cos   t y   vo sin   t  gt
2
 10.4 Projectile Motion
Example 1:
A projectile is fired at 60o and 500 m/sec.
Where will it be 10 seconds later?
1
x  500  cos 60  10 y  500sin 60 10   9.8 10 2
2
x  2500 y  3840.13
The projectile will be 2.5 kilometers downrange and
at an altitude of 3.84 kilometers.
Note: The speed of sound is 331.29 meters/sec
Or 741.1 miles/hr at sea level.
 10.4 Projectile Motion
The maximum height of a projectile occurs when
the vertical velocity equals zero.
dy
 vo sin   gt  0
dt
vo sin   gt
vo sin 
t
g
time at maximum height
 10.4 Projectile Motion
The maximum height of a projectile occurs when
the vertical velocity equals zero.
dy vo sin   gt
 vo sin   gt  0
dt
We can substitute this expression
vo sin 
t into the formula for height to get
g the maximum height.
 10.4 Projectile Motion
1 2
y   vo sin   t  gt
2 2
vo sin  1  vo sin  
ymax   vo sin    g 
g 2  g 
2  vo sin    vo sin  
2 2

ymax  
2g 2g
 vo sin  
2
maximum
ymax  height
2g
 10.4 Projectile Motion

1 2
When the height is zero: 0   vo sin   t  gt
2
 1 
0  t  vo sin   gt 
 2 

time at launch: t 0
 10.4 Projectile Motion
1 2
When the height is zero: 0   vo sin   t  gt
2
 1  1
0  t  vo sin   gt  vo sin   gt  0
 2  2
time at launch: t  0 1
vo sin   gt
2
2vo sin 
time at impact t
(flight time) g
 10.4 Projectile Motion

If we take the expression for flight time and substitute

it into the equation for x, we can find the range.

x  vo cos  t
2vo sin 
x  vo cos  
g
 10.4 Projectile Motion
If we take the expression for flight time and substitute
it into the equation for x, we can find the range.
2vo sin 
x  vo cos  t x  vo cos  
g
2 2
vo vo
x  2 cos  sin   x sin  2  Range
g g
 10.4 Projectile Motion
The range is maximum when sin  2  is maximum.

sin  2   1
2  90 o
Range is maximum
when the launch
  45o angle is 45o.
2
vo
x sin  2  Range
g
 10.4 Projectile Motion
If we start with the parametric equations for projectile
motion, we can eliminate t to get y as a function of x.
1 2
x   vo cos   t y   vo sin   t  gt
2
x
t
vo cos 
 10.4 Projectile Motion
If we start with the parametric equations for projectile
motion, we can eliminate t to get y as a function of x.
1 2
x   vo cos   t y   vo sin   t  gt
2 2
x x 1  x 
 t y   vo sin    g 
vo cos  vo cos  2  vo cos  
 g  2
This simplifies to: y     x   tan   x
 2vo cos  
2 2
which is the equation
of a parabola.
 10.4 Projectile Motion

If we start somewhere besides the origin, the equations

become:

1 2
x  xo   vo cos   t y  yo   vo sin   t  gt
2
A baseball is hit from 3 feet above the ground with an
initial velocity of 152 ft/sec at an angle of 20o from the
horizontal. A gust of wind adds a component of -8.8 ft/sec
in the horizontal direction to the initial velocity.

The parametric equations become:

x   152 cos 20  8.8  t

o y  3   152sin 20o  t  16t 2

vo  yo 1
g
2
These equations can be graphed on the TI-83 to model
the path of the ball:

the calculator must be in degrees.

 Using
the
trace
function:
Max height about 45 ft

Time
about
3.3 sec

Distance traveled about 442 ft

 10.4 Projectile Motion
In real life, there are other forces on the object. The
most obvious is air resistance.

If the drag due to air resistance is proportional to

the velocity:
Fdrag  kv (Drag is in the opposite
direction as velocity.)

Equations for the motion of a projectile with linear drag

force are given on page 546.
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Polar graphing is like the second method of giving
directions. Each point is determined by a distance and
an angle.

r A polar coordinate pair

  r , 
Initial ray determines the location of
a point.
 10.5 Polar Graphing

ra (Circle centered at the origin)

  o (Line through the origin)


1 r  2 0  
2
 10.5 Polar Graphing
More than one coordinate pair can refer to the same point.

2  2,30 
o

210o 30 o
  2, 210  o

150o
  2, 150  o

All of the polar coordinates of this point are:

 2,30  n  360 
o o

 2, 150  n  360 

o o
n  0,  1,  2 ...
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Equations Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

Polar Rectangular
r
x  r cos  y  r sin  y
θ
Rectangular Polar x
y
x y r
2 2 2
tan  
x
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Change from rectangular to polar.

(1, 3 ) (2, 300 )

3
(2,2) (2 2 , )
4
(4,3) (5, 323 )
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Change from polar to rectangular.
  3 3 3
 3,   , 
 6  2 2
 
 2  (2,2 3 )
 4, 
 3 
 2 2
 ,  
(1, 315 )  2 2 
 
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Write as a Cartesian Equation
r = 2 cos θ x  2 x +1  y
2 2
 0 +1
x
x y 2
2 2
( x  1) 2  y 2  1
r
x
x y 2
2 2

x y
2 2

x  y  2x
2 2
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Write as a Cartesian Equation
r = 4 tan θ sec θ
y r y
x y 4 
2 2 1 4 2
x x x
yr x2
x y 4 2
2 2 y
x 4
y x y
2 2
x y 4
2 2
2
x
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Write as a Polar Equation
xy = 2

r cos r sin   2 r   2 csc  sec 

r sin  cos  2
2

r  2 csc sec
2
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Write as a Polar Equation
x-y=6

r cos  r sin   6

r (cos  sin  )  6
6
r 
cos  sin 
 10.5 Polar Graphing
Tests for Symmetry:

x-axis: If (r, q) is on the graph, so is (r, -q).

r  2 cos  


r
 10.5 Polar Graphing
y-axis: If (r, q) is on the graph,
so is (r, p-q) or (-r, -q).

r r

r  2sin    


 10.5 Polar Graphing
origin: If (r, q) is on the graph, so is (-r, q)
or (r, q+p) .

r
tan  
r
cos   
r
 10.5 Polar Graphing
If a graph has two symmetries, then it has all three:

r  2 cos  2 
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves

r  2sin  2.15 
Try graphing this 0    16
on the TI-83.
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
To find the slope of a polar curve:

dy d
dy r sin 
 d  d 
r  sin   r cos 
dx dx d r  cos   r sin 
r cos 
d d

We use the product rule here.

10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
To find the slope of a polar curve:

dy d
r sin  r  sin   r cos 
dy
 d  d 
dx dx d r  cos   r sin 
r cos 
d d

dy r  sin   r cos 

dx r  cos  r sin 
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
Example: r  1  cos  r   sin 
sin  sin    1  cos   cos 
Slope 
sin  cos    1  cos   sin 
sin 2   cos   cos 2 

sin  cos   sin   sin  cos 

sin   cos   cos 

2 2
 cos 2  cos 
 
2sin  cos   sin  sin 2  sin 
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
The length of an arc (in a circle) is given by r . q when
q is given in radians.
For a very small q, the curve could be approximated by
a straight line and the area could be found using the
triangle formula:
1
A  bh
2
r r  d

1 1 2
dA   rd   r  r  d
2 2
10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
1 2
dA  r  d
2

We can use this to find the area inside a polar graph.

1 2
dA  r d
2

 1 2
A r d
 2
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
Example: Find the area enclosed by: r  2  1  cos  
1 2
  2
 0 2 r d
2 1
  4  1  cos   d
2
0 2

  2  1  2 cos   cos   d
2
2
0

2 1  cos 2
 2  4 cos   2  d
0 2
10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
2 1  cos 2
 2  4 cos   2  d
0 2
2
  3  4 cos   cos 2 d
0
2
1
 3  4sin   sin 2
2 0

 6  0  6
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
Notes:

To find the area between curves, subtract:

1  2 2
A   R  r d
2 
Just like finding the areas between Cartesian
curves, establish limits of integration where the
curves cross.
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
When finding area, negative values of r cancel out:

r  2sin  2 

Area of one leaf times 4: Area of four leaves:

1 2 1 2
A  4    2sin  2   d
2
A    2sin  2   d
2

2 0 2 0
A  2 A  2
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
To find the length of a curve:
Remember: ds  dx  dy
2 2

For polar graphs: x  r cos  y  r sin 

2
 dr 
ds  r    d
2

 d 
2
So:   dr 
Length   r 
2
 d

 d 
 10.6 Calculus of Polar Curves
There is also a surface area equation similar
to the others we are already familiar with:
When rotated about the x-axis:
2
  dr 
S  2 y r  
2
 d

 d 
2
  dr 
S  2 r sin  r  
2
 d

 d 