Mathematical Induction
Lecture 13
1
Proof Technique
Proof of quantified statements:
• There exists x with some property P(x).
– It is sufficient to find one element for which the property holds.
• For all x some property P(x) holds.
– Proofs of ‘For all x some property P(x) holds’ must cover all x
and can be harder.
• Mathematical induction is a technique that can be applied
to prove the universal statements for sets of positive integers
or their associated sequences.
2
Mathematical Induction
Used to prove statements of the form xP (x )where x ϵ
Z+
Mathematical induction proofs consists of two steps:
1) Basis: The proposition P(1) is true.
2) Inductive Step: The implication
P(n) → P(n+1), is true for all positive n.
• Therefore we conclude xP(x )
3
Mathematical Induction
• Example: Prove the sum of first n odd integers is n2
.
• i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n - 1) = n2 for all positive
integers.
Proof:
• What is P(n)?
P(n): 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n - 1) = n2
4
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
5
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1
6
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3
7
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3+5
8
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3+5+7
9
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3+5+7+9
10
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3+5+7+9 +11
11
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to
add next odd number:
1+3+5+7+9 +11+13
12
Mathematical Induction Example.
Geometric interpretation. To get next square, need to add
next odd number:
1+3+5+7+9+11+13=72
13
Mathematical Induction
So sequence of propositions is a sequence of dominos.
P (0) P (1) P (2) P (n) P (n+1)
14
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (0) P (1) P (2) P (n) P (n+1)
15
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (0) P (1) P (2) P (n) P (n+1)
16
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (1) P (2) P (n) P (n+1)
P (0) …
true
17
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (2) P (n) P (n+1)
P (0) P (1) …
true true
18
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (n) P (n+1)
P (0) P (1) P (2) …
true true true
19
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (n) P (n+1)
P (0) P (1) P (2) …
true true true
20
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (n+1)
P (0) P (1) P (2) … P (n)
true true true true
21
Mathematical Induction
Then can conclude that all the dominos fall!
P (0) P (1) P (2) … P (n) P (n+1)
true true true true true
22
Mathematical Induction
• Basis Step Show P(1) is true
• Trivial: 1 = 12
• Inductive Step
Show if P(n) is true then P(n+1) is true for all n.
• • Suppose P(n) is true,
that is 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n - 1) = n 2
• • Show P(n+1):
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n - 1) + (2n + 1) = (n+1)2
follows:
• 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2n - 1) + (2n + 1) = n2 + (2n+1)
= (n+1)2
23
Mathematical Induction
Example: Prove n3 - n is divisible by 3 for all positive
integers.
• P(n): n3 - n is divisible by 3
• Basis Step: P(1): 13 - 1 = 0 is divisible by 3 (obvious)
• Inductive Step: If P(n) is true then P(n+1) is true for
each
• positive integer.
• Suppose P(n): n3 - n is divisible by 3 is true.
• Show P(n+1): (n+1)3 - (n+1) is divisible by 3.
(n+1)3 - (n+1) = n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1 - n - 1
= (n3 - n) + 3n2 + 3n
= (n3 - n) + 3(n2 + n) 24
Divisible by 3 Divisible by 3
Mathematical Induction
Example: Prove than 2n < n! for all n ≥ 4.
1.Basis Step: P(4) = 24 < 4! =16 < 24 (trivial)
2.Inductive Step:
If P(n) is true then P(n+1) is also true
2n+1 = 2 . 2n
< 2. n! (P(n) is true)
< (n+1)n! (2<n+1)
= (n+1)!
25
Strong Induction
• The regular induction:
– basis step P(1) and
– inductive step P(n-1) → P(n)
• Strong induction uses:
– basis step P(1) and
– inductive step P(1) and P(2) … P(n-2) and P(n-1) → P(n)
• Example: Show that a positive integer greater than 1 can
be written as a product of primes.
26
Strong Induction
Example: Show that a positive integer greater than 1 can be
written as a product of primes.
1. Basis step: P(2) is true
2. Inductive step: Assume true for P(2), P(3), … P(n)
Show that P(n+1) is true as well.
2 Cases:
• If n+1 is a prime then P(n+1) is trivially true
• If n+1 is a composite then it can be written as a product of two
integers (n+1) = a*b such that 1< a ,b < n+1
• From the assumption P(a) and P(b) holds.
• Thus, n+1 can be written as a product of primes
• End of proof 27
Homeworks
Chapter 5, Page 329
Exercises – 3, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13,
15, 16, 17, 18
28
Thank You
29
