Instrumentation and
Measurements
Dr. Mohammad Kilani
Class 1
Introduction
Introduction to Measurements
Measurement techniques have been of immense importance
ever since the start of human civilization, when measurements
were first needed to regulate the transfer of goods in barter
trade to ensure that exchanges were fair. The industrial
revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a
rapid development of new instruments and measurement
techniques to satisfy the needs of industrialized production
techniques.
Applications of Measurement Systems
1. Regulating trade
2. Monitoring to allow human beings to take some action accordingly
3. Use as part of automatic feedback control systems
The Five Senses
1. See
2. Hear
3. Touch
4. Taste
5. Smell
Limitations of Unassisted Measurements
Sensing Principles
The interaction of physical parameters with each other—most notably electricity with stress, temperature and thermal gradients, magnetic fields,
and incident light—yields a multitude of sensing techniques which may be applied in measurements
Transductive
Piezoelectric
Transducer
Thermoelectric
Photoelectric
Pressure Current
etc. Temperature Voltage
Light Other.
Constitutive
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive Sensor
Etc. Pressure
Temperature R, C. L, etc
Light
Standardization of Units
Establishment of standards for the measurement of
physical quantities proceeded in several countries at
broadly parallel times, and in consequence, several sets
of units emerged for measuring the same physical
variable.
An internationally agreed set of standard units (SI units
or Syst`emes Internationales d’Unit´es) has been
defined, and strong efforts are being made to encourage
the adoption of this system throughout the world.
Standard Units
Fundamental Units and
Supplementary Fundamental Units
Derived Units
Elements of a Measurement Systems
In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single
unit that gives an output reading or signal according to
the magnitude of the unknown.
However, in more complex measurement situations, a
measuring system consists of several separate
elements. These components might be contained
within one or more boxes, and the boxes holding
individual measurement elements might be either close
together or physically separate.
Elements of a Measurement Systems
In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single
unit that gives an output reading or signal according to
the magnitude of the unknown.
However, in more complex measurement situations, a
measuring system consists of several separate
elements. These components might be contained
within one or more boxes, and the boxes holding
individual measurement elements might be either close
together or physically separate.
Elements of a Measurement Systems
[Morris, Measurement & Instrumentation Principles]
Variable Conversion
Sensor Signal Processor
Element
Measured Variable
Signal Transmission
Presentation / Recording
Unit
Output Use of Measurement at Remote
Location
Elements of a Measurement Systems
[Figliola, Theory and Design of Mechanical Measurements]
Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Sensor
A sensor gives an output that is a function of the
measurand (the input applied to it).
For most but not all sensors, this function is at least
approximately linear.
Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid
mercury in the liquid-in-glass thermometer, a
thermocouple and a strain gauge.
Examples Sensors
Strain gauge
Liquid Mercury Thermocouple
Input: Strain
Input: Temperature Input: Temperature
Output: Electric resistance
Output: Mercury volume Output: Voltage
Are these linear sensors?
Examples Sensors
Liquid Mercury Thermometer
Measured Variable: Temperature
Sensor: Liquid Mercury
Variable Conversion Element: Stem
Signal Presentation Element: Display Scale
Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Variable Coversion Element
Needed where the output variable of a primary sensor is in an
inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient
form.
The displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the form
of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily
measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge
circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element.
In some cases, the primary sensor and variable conversion element
are combined, and the combination is known as a transducer.
Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Processing Element
Improve the quality of the output of a measurement system.
A very common type is the electronic amplifier, used when the primary transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a
typical output of only a few millivolts.
Other signal processing element are those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc. In some devices, signal processing
is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a transmitter.
Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Transmission
Needed when the observation or application point of the output of a
measurement system is some distance away from the site of the
primary transducer.
It has traditionally consisted of single or multi-cored cable, which is
often screened to minimize signal corruption by induced electrical
noise.
Fibre-optic cables are being used in ever increasing numbers in
modern installations because of their low transmission loss and
imperviousness to the effects of electrical and magnetic fields.
Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Presentation or Recording Unit
The final optional element in a
measurement system.
It may be omitted altogether when the
measurement is used as part of an
automatic control system.
It takes the form either of a signal
presentation unit or of a signal-
recording unit.
Elements of a Measurement Systems
Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording
Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit
Measured Variable
Elements of a Measurement Systems
Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording
Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit
Measured Variable
Signal Transmission
Transducer
Elements of a Measurement Systems
Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording
Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit
Measured Variable
Signal Transmission
Transducer
Transmitter
Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors
used to measure temperature by correlating the
resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire
wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The RTD
element is made from a pure material whose resistance
at various temperatures has been documented; The
change in resistance is used to determine temperature.
Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)
Although most metals can in theory be used in RTDs,
only a few have been practically applied.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum,
copper, or nickel. These metals are suited for RTD
applications because of their linear resistance-
temperature characteristics, their high resistive
temperature coefficient, and their ability to withstand
repeated temperature cycles.
Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)
The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per
degree change in temperature, usually expressed as a
percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must
be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element
can be easily constructed.
Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)
With proper circuitry (e.g., Wheatstone
bridge), the change in resistance can be
converted into a change in voltage.
The combination then becomes a
temperature transducer
Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)
The simplest bridge configuration uses two wires. It
is used when high accuracy is not required, as the R R
u 1 V
resistance of the connecting wires is added to that i
of the sensor, leading to errors of measurement. V
o
This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. R
3 R
2
Ru R1
Vo Vi
Ru R3 R1 R2
When the bridge is balanced, Vo = 0
Ru R3 R1 R2
Homework
Suggest an alternative configuration to eliminate the
effect of lead resistance. Be prepared to present R R
u 1 V
your suggestion on class this Thursday. i
V
Make a team with four students per team. o
R
3 R
2
Ru R1
Vo Vi
Ru R3 R1 R2
When the bridge is balanced, Vo = 0
Ru R3 R1 R2
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
Accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance.
Environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to. Measurement systems and
instruments should be chosen that are as insensitive as possible to the operating environment.
The extent to which the measured system will be disturbed during the measuring process is
another important factor in instrument choice. For example, significant pressure loss can be
caused to the measured system in some techniques of flow measurement.
