ANEMOMETER

Reshma K V

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 Measurement of Flow
• Flow meter is a device that measures the rate of flow or
quantity of a moving fluid in an open or closed channel.
Flow measuring devices are generally classified into four
groups.
1. Mechanical type flow meters.
• Fixed restriction variable head type flow meters using
different sensors like orifice plate, venturi tube, flow
nozzle, pitot tube, dall tube, quantity meters like positive
displacement meters, mass flow meters etc.

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2. Inferential type flow meters.
• Variable area flow meters (Rotameters), turbine flow meter,
target flow meters etc.
3. Electrical type flow meters.
• Electromagnetic flow meter, Ultrasonic flow meter, Laser
Doppler Anemometers etc. fall under electrical type flow
meters.
4. Other flow meters.
• Purge flow regulators, Flow meters for Solids flow
measurement, Cross-correlation flow meter, Vortex
shedding flow meters, flow switches etc.
Velocity-Type Flow meters (Inferential Flow Meters)
• In this section we will discuss the four common velocity-
type flow meters: turbine meter, vortex-shedding meter,
magnetic flow meter, and ultrasonic flow meter.
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 Anemometers
• The use of hot wire resistance transducer is to
measure the flow rate of fluids by means of
measuring velocity of non conducting liquids.
Hot Wire Filament
• Hot wire filament is usually made by wire of
platinum or tungsten material. It is suitably mounted
in the flow channel by means of a support as shown
in Figure below. The diameter of the wire may vary
from 5 µm to 300µm and the length is about half the
diameter of the pipe. A smaller diameter gives a
larger resistance per unit length and less inertia but is
also less capable of sustaining large fluid pressure.
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Principle
• In hot wire anemometers, the filament is heated initially by
means of passing an electric current. This heated resistive
filament mounted on a tube is exposed to air flow or wind,
which is cooled because of fanning effect. Depending on the
velocity of air flow, the amount of cooling varies.
• The resistance of the probe when it is hot is different from
that when it is cooled. This difference in resistance or this
variation in resistance is converted into a voltage variation and
thereby the flow velocity is converted into a voltage variation.
• In hot-wire anemometers; an electrically heated thin wire is
placed across a flowing stream. The heat transfer depends on
the flow velocity. Two methods of measuring flow rate are:
1. Constant resistance method.
2. Constant current method.
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 Constant resistance method.
• The wire resistance is kept constant by adjusting the current
flow through it and the velocity is determined by measuring
the current and calibrating the instrument accordingly.
Constant current method.
• The current flow though the wire is kept constant and the
change in wire resistance from convection cooling is
measured in terms of the voltage drop across it. Fluctuations
in velocity may be detected and recorded by suitable
circuitry.
• When the hot wire is placed in a flowing stream, heat will be
transferred from the wire mainly by convection, radiation and
conduction being negligible. The following relationship is
used to determine the velocity.

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• Where I is the instantaneous current, R is the resistance of wire
per unit length, Tw is the temperature of the wire, Ta is the
ambient temperature, V is the free stream velocity and ρ is the
density of the fluid with constants A and B to be determined by
calibration. The pickups are shown in Figure below.

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Constant Current Type

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• In the constant current mode of operation, the current through
the hot wire is kept constant at a suitable value. The measuring
circuit of this type is shown in Figure above. In this type, the hot
wire resistive filament which is mounted centrally in the flow
pipe, carrying a fixed current is exposed to the flow velocity.
• The hot wire filament attains an equilibrium temperature when
the i2R heat generated in it is just balanced by the heat loss from
its surface. The proper circuit design is needed so that i2R heat is
essentially constant.
• Thus the hot wire filament temperature must adjust itself to
change the heat loss until the equilibrium is reached and this
equilibrium wire temperature is a measure of velocity. The wire
temperature can be measured in forms of its electrical resistance.

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• The measuring circuit of the constant-current anemometer can
be used for the measurement of steady velocities as well as
rapidly fluctuating components such as turbulent components
superimposed on an average velocity.

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Constant-Temperature Type
• The current through the hot wire filament is adjusted
to keep the wire temperature constant in this type. A
galvanometer is used to detect the balance conditions.
• The bridge is connected to a battery voltage source in
series with an adjustable resistor of a very large value
(2K).
• The voltage drop across the hot wire filament is
measured by a high resistance mill voltmeter
whenever the bridge is brought to balance condition.

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• The measuring circuit is shown in Figure. When there is no
flow, the bridge is in balance condition. For a change in flow,
resistance of the hot wire (Rw) changes and the bridge is
unbalanced.
• The unbalanced voltage is amplified and is used as a supply
to the bridge. The bridge current required for balancing gives
the change in the flow velocity. This current is measured by
measuring the voltage across the standard resistance Rs.
• When the resistance of hot wire filament Rw is maintained
constant by adjusting Rs, the current through the ammeter in
series with Rw is obtained for varying the voltage V.
• The variation of the current I2 as a function of the voltage V
is shown in Figure below. It is called as calibration curve .

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Comparison between Constant-Current Type and Constant-
Temperature Type
• In constant current type, the current has to be kept at a large
value and if sudden drop in velocity of fluid/gas occurs, the
convection loss is very much reduced and thereby resulting in
burning out of the hot wire filament. In constant-temperature
type, the disadvantages are the instability and drift problems in
the amplifier design and high noise figure obscuring
measurements of very small velocity fluctuations.
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 Laser Doppler Anemometer Systems

• Anemometers are used to measure air and gas flows in a

variety of applications.

Principle of Operation
• When sound or light is beamed into the atmosphere, the in
homogeneities in the air will reflect these beams. The resulting
Doppler shift in the returning frequencies can be interpreted as
an indication of wind velocity.

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Working
• When laser-based Doppler anemometers are used, the intensity of
the light scattered by the particles in the air is a function of their
refractive index and the size of the reflecting particles. The Laser
Doppler anemometer (LDA) is based on the Doppler Effect.
• The Doppler shift of frequency occurs as light is dispersed on the
surface of moving particles. The shift in the frequency of the light
source (laser beam) is proportional to the velocity of the particles.
• The frequency shift is very small (from 1 KHz up to a tenth of a
MHz) in comparison with the light frequency and thus it can be
directly measured.
• Therefore, the arrangement using the interference of the original
and refracted lights is used. This is called as ‘differential mode’ of
LDA. Figure below illustrates the LDA Principle.

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• The frequency ‘f’ of electrical signals produced by a
particle moving with velocity ‘V’ is given by

Applications
• The use of this non contact measurement method is
suitable for nearly all hydro dynamical and aero
dynamical velocity measurement applications.

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 Magnetic Flow meters
Basis of Operation
• Electromagnetic flow meters, also known as
magmeters, use Faradays’ law of electromagnetic
induction to sense the velocity of fluid flow.
• Faradays law states that moving a conductive
material at right angles through a magnetic field
induces a voltage proportional to the velocity of the
conductive material.
• The conductive material in the case of a magmeter
is the conductive fluid. The fluid therefore must be
electrically conductive, but not magnetic.
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Power generators/magmeters - what’s the connection?
• If we consider power generators or tachometers that are used for speed
measurement, then these operate on the same principle. Electrically
conductive process fluid is fundamentally the same as the rotor in a
generator. The fluid passes through a magnetic field induced by coils
that are positioned around a section of pipe.
• The process fluid is electrically insulated from the pipe with a suitable
lining, in the case of a metal pipe, so that the generated voltage is not
dissipated through the pipeline. The electrodes are located in the pipe and
a voltage is generated across these electrodes that are directly
proportional to the average velocity of the liquid passing through the
magnetic field.
• The coils are energized with ac power or pulsed dc voltage, so
consequently the magnetic field and resultant induced voltage responds
accordingly. The generated voltage is protected from interference,
amplified and converted into a dc current signal by the transmitter. Line
voltage variations are accounted for by the sensing circuits.

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• The magnetic flow meter is constructed of a nonmagnetic tube
that carries the flowing liquid, which must have a minimum
level of conductivity. Surrounding the metering tube are
magnetic coils and cores that provide a magnetic field across the
full width of the metering tube when electric current is applied
(see Figure ).
• The fluid flowing through the tube is the conductor, and as the
conductor moves through the magnetic field a voltage is
generated that is proportional to the volumetric flow rate. This
voltage is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and to the
direction of the flowing liquid.

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Turbine Flow meters

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• The turbine flow meter provides a frequency or pulse
output signal that varies linearly with volumetric flow rate
over specified flow ranges.
• The entire fluid to be measured enters the Flow meter, then
passes through a rotor. The fluid passing the rotor causes it
to turn with an angular velocity that is proportional to the
fluid linear velocity. Therefore, the volumetric flow rate is
linear within given limits of flow rate.
• The pickup probe converts the rotor velocity into an
equivalent frequency signal. Variable reluctance pickup
assemblies are the type most commonly used.
• In this system, the meter housing must be nonmagnetic,
and so is usually stainless steel. The rotor must also be
stainless steel.
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• The flow rate can be indicated digitally or in analog form.
Digital counters that have an adjustable time base indicate
flow rate either in terms of frequency or in direct-reading units
(such as gallons per minute), depending on the time base that
has been established.
• Analog indicators require an analog signal that is proportional
to frequency.

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Advantages
• Better Accuracy [± 0.25% to ± 0.5%].
• It provides excellent repeatability [± 0.25% to ± 0.02%] &
range ability (10: 1 and 20: 1).
• It has fairly low pressure drop.
• It is easy to install and maintain.
• It has good temperature and pressure ratings.
• It can be compensated for viscosity variation.

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Disadvantages
• High cost.
• It has limited use for slurry applications.
• It is not suitable for non-lubricating fluids.
• They cannot maintain its original calibration over a very
long period and therefore periodical recalibration is
necessary.
• They are sensitive to changes in the viscosity of the liquid
passing through the meters.
• They are sensitive to flow disturbances.
• Due to high bearing friction is possible in small meters;
they are not preferred well for low flow rates.
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Application Limitations
• As turbine meters rely on the flow, they do absorb some pressure
from the flow to propel the turbine. The pressure drop is typically
around 20 to 30 kPa at the maximum flow rate and does vary
depending on flow rate.
• It is a requirement in operating turbine meters that sufficient line
pressure be maintained to prevent liquid cavitations. The minimum
pressure occurs at the rotor, however the pressure recovers
substantially are after the turbine.
• If the backpressure is not sufficient, then it should be increased or a
larger meter chosen to operate in a lower operating range. This does
have the limitation of reducing the meter flow range and accuracy.
Applications
• The turbine meters are widely used for military applications. They
are particularly useful in blending systems for the petroleum industry.
They are effective in aerospace and air borne applications for energy-
fuel and cryogenic flow measurements.
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 Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Introduction
• Pressure variations travel through a fluid at the velocity of
sound relative to the fluid. If fluid is in motion with certain
velocity, then the absolute velocity of pressure disturbance
propagation is the algebraic sum of the two.
• The term ‘ultrasonic’ refers to the pressure differences (usually
are short bursts of sine waves) whose frequency is above the
range audible to human hearing which is 20 to 20000 Hz.
Principle
• The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the
velocity of sound in a fluid in motion is the resultant of the
velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity
of the fluid itself.

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Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters
(i) Transit time flow meters
(ii) Doppler Flow meter
• The fundamental difference is that the transit-
time method should be used for clean fluids,
while the Doppler reflection type used for
dirty, slurry type flows.
 
 

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Transit Time Flow Meters

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• As the name implies, these devices measure flow by
measuring the time taken for an ultrasonic energy pulse
to traverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow
of the liquid within the pipe. Figure shows shows a
representative transit time flow meter.
• The transit-time flow meter device sends pulses of
ultrasonic energy diagonally across the pipe. The transit-
time is measured from when the transmitter sends the
pulse to when the receiver detects the pulse.
• Each location contains a transmitter and receiver. The
pulses are sent alternatively upstream and downstream
and the velocity of the flow is calculated from the time
difference between the two directions.

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The forward and backward transit times across the pipe, Tf and
Tb, are given by:

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Application Limitations
• Clamp-on designs are limited because of the differing mediums in
which the ultrasonic’s signals pass through. For optimum results, a
sound-conductive path is required between the transducer and the
process fluid inside the pipe. Couplings are available for reducing
these effects but are quite expensive.
• Turbulence or even the swirling of the process fluid can affect the
ultrasonic signals. In typical applications the flow needs to be
stable to achieve good flow measurement, and typically allowing
sufficient straight pipe up and downstream of the transducers does
this.
• For the transit time meter, the ultrasonic signal is required to
traverse across the flow, therefore the liquid must be relatively free
of solids and air bubbles. Anything of a different density (higher or
lower) than the process fluid will affect the ultrasonic signal.

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Typical Applications
• Transit-time ultrasonic flow measurement is suited
for clean fluids. Some of the more common process
fluids consist of water, liquefied gases and natural
gas.

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Doppler Flow meter

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Doppler Effect
• The Doppler effect device relies on objects with
varying density in the flow stream to return the
ultrasonic energy. With the Doppler effect meter, a
beam of ultrasonic energy is transmitted diagonally
through the pipe. Portions of this ultrasonic energy
are reflected back from particles in the stream of
varying density. Since the objects are moving, the
reflected ultrasonic energy has a different frequency.
The amount of difference between the original and
returned signals is proportional to the flow velocity.

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Doppler Flow Meters
• This type of flow meter is based on Doppler principle. The
transmitter of a Doppler flow meter projects an ultrasonic
beam at a frequency of about 0.5 MHz into the flowing stream
and deflects the reflected frequency.
• The difference between transmitted and reflected velocities is
called the ‘beat frequency’ and is related to the velocity of the
reflecting surfaces (solid particles and gas bubbles) in the
process stream.

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Principle of Operation
• As shown in Figure below, an ultrasonic wave is projected at
an angle through the pipe wall into the liquid by a transmitting
crystal in a transducer mounted outside the pipe.
• Part of the energy is reflected by bubbles or particles in the
liquid and is returned through the pipe wall to a receiving
crystal.
• If the reflectors are travelling at the fluid velocity, the
frequency of the reflected wave is shifted according to the
Doppler principle, in proportion to the flow velocity.

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Advantages
• Suitable for large diameter pipes.
• No obstructions, no pressure loss.
• No moving parts, long operating life.
• Fast response.
• Installed on existing installations.
• Not affected by fluid properties.
Disadvantages
• Accuracy is dependent on flow profile.
• Fluid must be acoustically transparent.
• Errors cause by build up in pipe.
• Only possible in limited applications.
• Expensive.
• Pipeline must be full.

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Application Limitations
• As the Doppler flow meter relies on reflections from
the flow stream, it therefore requires sufficiently
sized solids or bubbles. It is also required that the
flow be fast enough to maintain a suitable quantity of
solids and bubbles in suspension ,Higher frequency
Doppler flow meters are available, but are limited to
cleaner fluids.

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Vortex Shedding Device

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• Vortex flow meters can measure liquid, gas or steam and use
the principle of vortex shedding. Vortex shedding occurs
when an obstruction is placed in the flowing stream. The
obstruction is referred to as a bluff body and causes the
formation of swirls, called vortices, downstream from the
body.
• Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed
and shed. This pressure variation is used to actuate the sealed
sensor at a frequency proportional to the vortex shedding.
• For continuous flow, a series of vortices generates electrical
pulses with a frequency that is also proportional to the flow
velocity. The velocity can then be converted to volumetric
flow rate.

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• The output of a vortex flow meter depends on the K-
factor. The K-factor relates to the frequency of
generated vortices to the fluid velocity.

• The K-factor varies with the Reynolds number;

however it is virtually constant over a broad range of
flows. Vortex flow meters provide very linear flow
rates when operated within the flat range.

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• The vortex shedding flow device is shown in Figure below. Its
operating principle is fairly simple. As fluid flows past a bluff body,
or shedder, at low velocity, the flow pattern remains streamlined.
However, as velocity increases the fluid separates from each side of
the shedder and swirls to form vortices downstream of the shedder.
• A vortex is an area of swirling motion with high local velocity and
thus lower pressure than the surrounding fluid. The amount of
vortex generation is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
• You can therefore use the relationship Q = Av to obtain the flow
rate. A pressure sensor that is mounted on the upstream side of the
flow shedder detects the pressure that is exerted on the shedder by
the formation of vortices. The signal from the pressure sensor is
converted into a calibrated flow signal by an electronic circuit in a
flow meter.

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 Primary Element - Bluff Bodies
• Round Bluff Body

• Delta-Shaped Bluff Body

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• Two-Part Bluff Body

• Rectangular Bluff Bodies

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 Mass Flow Meters
• Mass flow measurement gives a more accurate
account of fluids, and is not affected by density,
pressure and temperature (unlike volumetric
measurements). Although most meters can infer
mass flow rate from volumetric flow
measurements, there are a number of ways to
measure mass flow directly:
• The Coriolis meter
• Thermal mass flow meter
• Radiation density
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 The Coriolis Meter
The Coriolis Effect
• The basis of the Coriolis meter is Newtons’ Second
Law of Motion, where:
• Force = Mass x Acceleration.

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Working
• The operating principle of Coriolis mass flow meters is based on
the force exerted by the Coriolis acceleration of a fluid. The flow
meter consists of a vibrating tube in which the Coriolis acceleration
is created and measured. A typical flow tube is shown in Figure.
• The flow tube is designed and built to have predictable vibration
characteristics. A drive assembly connected to the center of the tube
causes the tube to twist as shown in Figure.
• This vibrates the tube. Position-sensing coils on each side of the
flow tube sense this twisting. Since the frequency of the vibration
of the tube varies with the density of the fluid inside the tube, the
computer inside the electronics unit of the Coriolis flow meter can
calculate a density value.
• Coriolis meters can be used on virtually any liquid or gas that flows
at a mass great enough to operate the meter.

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Advantages
• Direct, in-line mass flow measurement.
• Independent of temperature, pressure, density, conductivity
and viscosity.
• Sensor capable of transmitting mass flow, density and
temperature information.
• High density capability.
• Conductivity independent.
• Suitable for hydrocarbon measurements.
• Suitable for density measurement.
Disadvantages
• Cost.
• Affected by vibration.
• Installation costs.
• Adjustment of zero point
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Application Limitations
• High temperature.
• Vibration.
• Amount of gas in fluid.
• Restricted to low flow rates.
• Limited to pipe sizes of up to 150mm.

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 Thermal Mass Flow meters
Thermal flow meters can be divided into two categories:
• Flow meters that measure the rise in temperature of the fluid
after a known amount of heat has been added to it. They can
be called heat transfer flow meters.
• Flow meters that measure the effect of the flowing fluid on a
hot body. These instruments are sometimes called hot wire
probes or heated-thermopile flow meters.
Both types of flow meters can be used to measure flow rates in
terms of mass, a very desirable measurement, especially on
gas service.

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The two main types of thermal mass flow measuring
devices are:
• Thermal Anemometer
• Temperature rise flow meter

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Thermal anemometer

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• The thermal anemometer works by measuring the heat
dissipation from a probe inserted in the line. The amount of
heat taken from the probe is dependent on the fluid velocity
and density, but is also a direct measure of the mass flow rate.
The temperature is also measured for the calculation. They are
also referred to as ‘Hot wire probes’.
• The probe can either be constant current or constant
temperature. In the constant current type, a fixed current is
passed through the probe which causes heating in the probe.
As the flow rate varies, so does the amount of heat taken from
the probe and hence the temperature changes. The temperature
is measured to derive the flow.

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• For the constant temperature type, a feedback loop is required
to maintain a constant temperature. As the change of flow
affects the temperature, the current needs to be regulated to
maintain probe temperature. The flow rate is determined by
the power required to heat the probe.
• In comparing the constant current and constant temperature
types it is shown that constant temperature devices have a
faster response to flow changes
Advantages
• Fast response times, < 0.5milliseconds.
Disadvantages
• Require 10 diameters of straight pipe upstream.
• Have similar limitations to pitot tubes
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Temperature rise flow meter - insertion type

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• Temperature rise flow meters work on the principle of heating
the flow stream. By heating the flow stream at one point, the
temperature can be measured both upstream and downstream
of the heating point.
• Calculating the difference between the temperatures gives
information about the flow rate.
Disadvantages
• Suitable for low gas flows only.
• Subject to erosion and corrosion.
• More tapping points, increased chances of leakage.

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Temperature rise flow meter - external type

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• Developments of the insertion type of sensing have moved the
heating and sensing elements to outside the pipe to overcome
the problems with tapping points. By limiting the tapping
points, the chance of leakage (and associated maintenance) is
greatly reduced, if not eliminated.
Advantages
• Non contact, non intrusive sensing
• No obstruction to flow
• Reduced maintenance
Disadvantages
• Suitable for low gas flows only
• Subject to erosion and corrosion

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Radiation Density
• One of the limitations of flow meters is that they measure
volumetric flow only. As mentioned previously, if the
density is known and is constant, then mass flow rate can
be calculated. Problems arise when the density varies.
• It is however possible and quite acceptable practice to
combine volumetric flow equipment with density
measuring devices to obtain accurate mass flow
measurements. One such combination is the use of a
magmeter with a radiation densitometer.

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Radiation-Type Mass Flow meters

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• The introduction of density/mass flow systems has made it
easier to use this technique. The key working component in
these combinational designs is the multiple-input transmitter
(Figure),
• which, in addition to a radiation-type density input, accepts a
flow measurement signal from any volumetric flow meter.
Based on these two inputs, the microprocessor-based
transmitter generates an output signal that relates to mass flow.

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• A further improvement occurred in the design of these
density/mass flow systems in which the density and volumetric
flow sensors were combined in a single package (Figure ).
• These units are composed of a either a Doppler ultrasonic flow
meter or a magnetic flow meter and a gamma-radiation-based
densitometer, all in a single unit including a microcomputer.
• These mass flow units do not require compensation for changes
in process variables and are installed as a single, obstruction
less mass flow sensor. Its features and materials of construction
are similar to those of a magnetic or ultrasonic flow meter
except that it is bulkier and more expensive because it
incorporates a radiation-type densitometer.
• If the flow sensor is a magnetic flow meter, the unit is also
limited to use on process fluids having at least 3.0 µS/cm
conductivity.

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Angular-Momentum-Type Mass Flow Meters
• The principle of angular momentum can be described by
referring to Newton’s second law of the angular motion and
the definition of angular momentum, using the following
notation:

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• Therefore, since r2 is a constant for any given system, the flow of
fluid can be determined if an angular momentum is introduced into
the fluid stream and measurements are made of the torque
produced by this angular momentum and of the fluid’s angular
velocity.

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 Constant-Torque-Hysteresis Clutch
• Another angular-momentum type mass flow meter eliminates
the necessity of making a torque measurement after imparting
a constant torque to the fluid stream. The relationship between
mass flow and torque is

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• This relationship is used in designing a mass flow meter
as follows : A synchronous motor is placed in the center
of the flow meter assembly.
• This motor is magnetically coupled to an impeller which
is located within the flowing process stream.
• The magnetic coupling between the motor and the
impeller is provided by means of a hysteresis clutch
which transmits a constant torque from the motor to the
impeller.
• Thus, a measurement of the rotational speed of the
impeller is inversely proportional to the mass flow rate.

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Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters

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• The impeller, turbine-type mass flow meter uses two
rotating elements in the fluid stream, an impeller and a
turbine. Both elements contain channels through which the
fluid flows.
• The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous
motor through a magnetic coupling and imparts an angular
velocity to the fluid as it flows through the meter.
• The turbine located downstream of the impeller removes all
angular momentum from the fluid and thus receives a torque
proportional to the angular momentum.
• This turbine is restrained by a spring which deflects through
an angle which is proportional to the torque exerted upon it
by the fluid, thus giving a measure of mass flow.

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Twin-Turbine Mass Flow Meter

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• Another angular-momentum-type device is the twin turbine
mass flow meter. In this instrument two turbines are mounted
on a common shaft. Figure below shows a twin-turbine mass
flow meter in which two turbines are connected with a
calibration torsion member. A reluctance type pick up is
mounted over each turbine and a strong magnet is located in
each turbine within the twin-turbine assembly.
• Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle; therefore
there is a tendency for the turbines to turn at different angular
velocities. However, since the motion of the turbines is
restricted by the coupling torsion member, the entire assembly
rotates in unison at some average velocity, and an angular
phase shift is developed between the two turbines. This angle
is a direct function of the angular momentum of the fluid. As
was previously shown, angular momentum is a function of
mass flow
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• This angle is measured by a unique method. As each
turbine magnet passes its own pickup coil, the coil
generates a pulse.
• The pulse from the upstream turbine is used to open an
electronic gate, while the pulse from the down-stream
turbine closes this gate.
• An oscillator is placed in the electronic circuit and the
oscillations are counted while gate is opened.
• The number of oscillations is thus a function of the angle
between the two turbines. Knowledge of the angle gives
the value of torque which, in turn, is proportional to the
mass flow rate.

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Gyroscopic Mass Flow Meter

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• Another angular momentum mass flow meter shown
in Figure shows operates on the principle of
gyroscope.
• It consists of a pipe shaped in the form of a circle or
a square. A motor introduces an oscillating vibration
at a constant angular velocity ‘ω’ about the A axis.
• When the fluid passes through the loop, a
precession-type moment is produced about the B
axis and is measured by the deflection of the sensing
element.
• This deflection can be shown to be directly
proportional to mass flow.

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Theory of Fixed Restriction Variable Head Type Flow meters

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• Section-1 is the position of upstream tap and Section-2 that for
downstream.
• The terms T, A, ρ, V, P and Z represent Temperature, Area,
Density, Stream velocity, Pressure and Central line elevation
respectively.
• If this elevation is quite small such that Z2 – Z1 is negligible,
the Bernoulli’s equation for an incompressible (ρ1 = ρ2)
frictionless and adaptive flow is written as

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89
90
• Reynolds Number

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Discharge Coefficient (Cd)
• Discharge coefficient, C is defined as the ratio between actual
volumetric flow rate and ideal volumetric flow rate.

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Orifice Plate

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• The orifice plate is the most common type of restriction used in
process control applications to measure flow. The principle behind
the orifice plate is simple.
• The plate is inserted in a process line, and then the differential
pressure (∆P = Phigh – Plow or P1-P2) developed across the orifice
plate is measured to determine the flow rate.
• To maintain a steady flow through the orifice plate, the velocity
must increase as it passes through the orifice. This increase in
velocity, or kinetic energy, comes about at the expense of pressure,
or potential energy.
• The differential pressure across the orifice plate is a measure of the
flow velocity. The greater the flow, the larger the differential
pressure across the orifice plate.

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• Figure shows the three most common types of orifice plates:
concentric, eccentric, and segmental.
• The concentric orifice plate (Figure a) is the most widely used
type.
• The eccentric orifice plate (Figure b) is exactly like the
concentric plate, except that the hole is bored off center.
• The segmental orifice plate (Figure c) has a hole that is a
segment of a circle. You must install it so the circular section
is concentric with the pipe and no portion of the flange or
gasket covers the hole

96
Materials Chosen For Orifices
• The common materials used are Stainless steel, Monel,
Phosphor bronze, Glass, Ceramics, Plastics, Brass, Copper,
Aluminium and Tantalum.
Advantages
• Simple construction.
• Inexpensive.
• Easily fitted between flanges.
• No moving parts.
• Large range of sizes and opening ratios.
• Suitable for most gases and liquids.

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Disadvantages
• Inaccuracy, typically 1%.
• Low Range ability, typically 4:1.
• Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity fluctuations.
• Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects measurement accuracy.
• Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss.
• Viscosity limits measuring range.
• Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is maintained.
• Pipeline must be full (typically for liquids).
Application Limitations
• The inaccuracy with orifice type measurement is due mainly to process
conditions and temperature and pressure variations. Ambient conditions
and upstream and downstream piping also affect the accuracy because of
changes to the pressure and continuity of flow.
• Standard concentric orifice plate devices should not be used for slurries
and dirty fluids or in applications where there is a high probability of
solids accumulating near the plate. Half-circle or eccentric bores can be
used for these applications.
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Venturi Tube

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• The venturi tube is shown in Figure. It consists of a
converging conical inlet section in which the cross
section of the stream decreases and the velocity increases
with concurrent increases of velocity head and decreases
of pressure head.
• The tube also includes a cylindrical throat that provides a
point for measuring this decreased pressure in an area
where flow rate is neither increasing nor decreasing.
• A diverging recovery cone is also present to lower
velocity and recover the decreased velocity as pressure.
Pressure taps are taken at one-half diameter upstream of
the inlet cone and at the middle of the throat.

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Advantages
– Less significant pressure drop across restriction.
– Less unrecoverable pressure loss.
– Requires less straight pipe up and downstream.
Disadvantages
• More expensive.
• Bulky - requires large section for installation.

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Flow Nozzles

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• The flow nozzle shown in Figure consists of a
restriction with an elliptical, or near elliptical, contour
approach section that terminates in tangency with a
cylindrical throat section.
• Flow nozzles are commonly used to measure steam
flow and other high-velocity fluid flows where
erosion may be a problem.
• Since the exact contour of the nozzle is not
particularly critical, the flow nozzle can be expected
to retain precise calibration for a long time under
hostile conditions. Because of their streamlined
shape, flow nozzles tend to sweep solids through the
throat.
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Advantages
– High velocity applications.
– Operate in higher turbulence.
– Used with fluids containing suspended solids.
– More cost effective than venturis.
– Physically smaller than the venturi.
Disadvantages
– More expensive than orifice plates.
– Higher unrecoverable pressure loss.

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Flow Tube (Dall Tube)

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Construction and Working
• It is a modified version of venturi tube. It produces
large differential pressure with low pressure less than
the conventional venturi tube
• Flow tubes are more compact than the venturi tube,
but provide a higher differential pressure for less
unrecoverable pressure loss. They are primarily a low
loss meter and the most common type would be the
Dall tube.

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Advantages
• Shorter lay length.
• Lower unrecoverable pressure loss.
Disadvantages
• More complex to manufacture.
• Sensitive to turbulence.
• Accuracy based on flow data.
 
• Application Limitations
• It is recommended that when using this type of tube, it should be
calibrated with the piping section in which it is to be used and over
the full range of flows in which it will operate.
• These types of flow devices do not necessarily conform to the wide
range of conditions and extensive test data for orifice meters.

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 Gate Meter
• The gate meter consists of a spring-loaded, hinged flap
mounted at right angles to the direction of fluid flow in the
fluid-carrying pipe. The flap is connected to a pointer
outside the pipe. The fluid flow deflects the flap and pointer
and the flow rate is indicated by a graduated scale behind the
pointer.
• The major difficulty with such devices is in preventing leaks
at the hinge point. A variation on this principle is the air-
vane meter, which measures deflection of the flap by a
potentiometer inside the pipe.
• This is commonly used to measure airflow within
automotive fuel-injection systems. Another similar device is
the target meter.
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 Target Meter
• This consists of a circular disc-shaped flap in the pipe.
Fluid flow rate is inferred from the force exerted on the
disc measured by strain gauges bonded to it.
• This meter is very useful for measuring the flow of dilute
slurries but it does not find wide application elsewhere as
it has a relatively high cost.
• Measurement uncertainty in all of these types of meter
varies between 1% and 5% according to cost and design
of each instrument.

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Target Flow Meters

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Principle of Working
• Material buildup in front of orifice plates can cause both
measurement errors and plugging when the process stream
is liquid slurry or a gas carrying wet solids.
• The annular orifice, which is illustrated in Figure above,
was introduced to solve this problem by providing an
annular opening for the solids to pass through.
• Target flow meters are similar in design except that the
pressure taps have also been eliminated and the detection
of differential pressure been replaced by force
measurement.
• Both of these designs are suited for dirty or low
turbulence flow metering applications, if high precision is
not required.
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Construction
• The target meter combines in a single unit an annular orifice
and a force-balance transducer. Output is either an electric or
pneumatic signal proportional to the square of the flow.
• Target meters are available in sizes from 1/2 to 8 inch pipe
diameter. The annular orifice is formed by a circular disk
supported in the center of a tubular section having the same
diameter.
• Flow through the open ring between disk and tube develops a
force on the disk proportional to velocity head (the square of
the flow). The disk is mounted on a rod passing out through a
flexible seal.
• The force on the disk is measured from the rod outside the seal,
using a standard force-balance transducer integrally mounted
on the flow tube.

112
Applications
• The target meter is applied in a number of fields for
measurement of liquids, vapours and gases.
• It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous
material along the bottom of a pipe and at the same time
allows unimpeded flow of gas or vapour along the top of the
pipe.

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 Cross-Correlation Flow meter

• Cross-correlation flow meters use two such sensors

placed a known distance apart in the fluid-carrying pipe
and cross-correlation techniques are applied to the two
output signals from these sensors.
• This procedure compares one signal with progressively
time-shifted versions of the other signal until the best
match is obtained between the two waveforms. If the
distance between the sensors is divided by this time shift,
a measurement of the flow velocity is obtained.
• A digital processor is an essential requirement to calculate
the cross-correlation function, and therefore the
instrument must be properly described as an intelligent
one.
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115
• In an ultrasonic cross-correlation flow meter, the upstream and
downstream signals are generated by sending an ultrasonic
beam across the pipe. A schematic of the device is shown in
Figure.
• The ultrasonic beam is transmitted as a pure tone with a
frequency of the order of 100 kHz and is received by a
diametrically opposed receiver. The turbulence in the flow
causes slight perturbations in the propagation speed of the
beam, which results in the receiver reading a randomly phase-
modulated version of the transmitted signal.
• The signal is then passed through a demodulator which
removes the carrier frequency and outputs a low frequency
random signal, which serves as a signature of the turbulence
that the beam passed through.

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• The phase demodulation was based on a phase-locked loop,
which directly provides on output signal related to the phase
modulation of the input signal and cuts off the carrier
frequency.
• A correlator for real time monitoring of the cross-correlation
function.
• The signals were also recorded on tape and the delay of the
cross correlation peak as well as the derivative of the phase
function of the cross-power density spectrum were later
analyzed by signal analyzer.

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 V-Cone flow meter

• The V-Cone flow meter is a differential pressure type flowmeter. Basic

theories behind differential pressure type flowmeters have existed for
over a century. The principal theory among these is Bernoulli’s theorem
for the conservation of energy in a closed pipe.
• This states that for a constant flow, the pressure in a pipe is inversely
proportional to the square of the velocity in the pipe. Simply, the
pressure decreases as the velocity increases. For instance, as the fluid
approaches the V-Cone flow meter, it will have a pressure of P1 .
• As the fluid velocity increases at the constricted area of the V-Cone,
the pressure drops to P2 , as shown in Figure. Both P1 and P2 are
measured at the V-Cone flow meter’s taps using a variety of differential
pressure transducers. The Dp created by a V-Cone flow meter will
increase and decrease exponentially with the flow velocity.

118
• The beta ratio equals the flow area at the largest cross section
of the cone (converted to an equivalent diameter) divided by
the meter’s inside diameter.

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120
 purge flow meter
• When the purge flow meter is combined with a
differential pressure regulator (Figure below), it becomes
a self-contained flow controller.
• The purge flow is fixed by adjusting springs 1 and 2 for a
particular pressure difference, usually in the range of
about 60 to 80 in. (150 to 200 cm) of water. This constant
pressure drop (P2 − Po) is than maintained across the flow
control valve (V).
• The configuration in Figure below maintains the outlet
pressure (Po) constant by compensating for any variation
in the inlet pressure Pi by changing the regulator valve
opening.

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122
• Other purge flow meter designs are also available that
work in a reverse configuration by keeping the inlet
pressure Pi constant and allowing the outlet Po to vary.
• In these designs, the constant pressure drop across the
valve (V) is maintained to equal (Pi − P2) instead of (P2 −
Po) being kept constant. The gas flows through purge flow
controllers are usually adjustable in a range of 0.2 to 2
SCFH (6 to 60 slph).
• The error or inaccuracy is usually 5% of full scale over a
range of 10:1. The standard pressure and temperature
ratings are 150 to 300 PSIG (1 to 2 MPa) and 212 to
572°F (100 to 300°C).

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Application Considerations
• Many different types of sensors can be used for flow
measurements. The choice of any particular device for a
specific application depends on a number of factors such as-
reliability, cost, accuracy, pressure range, temperature, wear
and erosion, energy loss, ease of replacement, particulates,
viscosity, and so forth.

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Selection
• The selection of a flow meter for a specific application to a
large extent will depend on the required accuracy and the
presence of particulates, although the required accuracy is
sometimes downgraded because of cost.
• One of the most accurate meters is the magnetic flow meter
which can be accurate to 1 percent of full scale reading or
deflection (FSD).
• The meter is good for low flow rates, with high viscosities and
has low energy loss, but is expensive and requires a
conductive fluid

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• The general purpose and most commonly used devices are the
pressure differential sensors used with pipe constrictions.
• These devices will give accuracies in the 3 percent range
when used with solid state pressure sensors which convert the
readings directly into electrical units or the rotameter for direct
visual reading.
• The Venturi tube has the highest accuracy and least energy
loss followed by the flow nozzle and the orifice plate. For cost
effectiveness the devices are in the reverse order.

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Installation
• Because of the turbulence generated by any type of obstruction in
an otherwise smooth pipe, attention has to be given to the
placement of flow sensors. The position of the pressure taps can be
critical for accurate measurements. The manufacturer’s
recommendations should be followed during installation. In
differential pressure sensing devices the upstream tap should be one
to three pipe diameters from the plate or constriction and the down
stream tap up to eight pipe diameters from the constriction.
• To minimize the pressure fluctuations at the sensor, it is desirable to
have a straight run of 10 to15 pipe diameters on either side of the
sensing device. It may also be necessary to incorporate laminar flow
planes into the pipe to minimize flow disturbances and dampening
devices to reduce flow fluctuations to an absolute minimum.
• Flow nozzles may require a vertical installation if gases or
particulates are present. To allow gases to pass through the nozzle, it
should be facing upwards and for particulates, downwards.
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Calibration
• Flow meters need periodic calibration. This can be done by
using another calibrated meter as a reference or by using a
known flow rate. Accuracy can vary over the range of the
instrument and with temperature and specific weight changes
in the fluid, which may all have to be taken into account.
• Thus, the meter should be calibrated over temperature as
well as range, so that the appropriate corrections can be made
to the readings.
• A spot check of the readings should be made periodically to
check for instrument drift that may be caused by the
instrument out of calibration, particulate build up, or erosion.

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