Deductive Arguments:
Valid and Invalid Patterns
CGE14411
Lecture 6
1
In the last lecture
We covered
The basic features of a valid argument
If the premises are true, the conclusion
must be true
Invalid arguments
Counter-example
Faulty assumption
Specific case not fitting general law
2
Intended Learning Outcomes of this Lecture
After the lecture, you should be able
to
Describe the five typical patterns of valid
arguments
Describe the two typical patterns of
invalid arguments
Express the arguments in terms of
symbols
3
Patterns of Arguments
Valid patterns Invalid patterns
A. Modus Ponens • Affirming the
B. Modus Tollens consequent
C. Hypothetical syllogism • Denying the
D. Categorical syllogism antecedent
E. Disjunctive syllogism
4
A. Modus Ponens 肯定前提
Arguments with this pattern consist
of
one conditional premise (the “if” and
“then” part)
a second premise that asserts the
antecedent (the “if” part) of the
conditional as true
a conclusion that asserts the consequent
(the “then” part) of the conditional as
true
5
Example
A. If this object is made of copper, it conducts
electricity.
B. This object is made of copper.
C. So it conducts electricity.
A. If I want to get a high GPA, I’d better study
hard.
B. I do want to get a high GPA.
C. Therefore, I’d better study hard.
6
Using symbols
We often use symbols (P and Q) to denote the
antecedent and the consequent
Common structure
A. If P is true, then Q is true. A.If P, then Q
B. Now P is true, B.P
C. Therefore Q is true C.Therefore Q
A.P Q
B.P
C. Q
7
However, don’t confuse modus
ponens with the following form of
argument, which is not valid
Affirming the consequent 肯定後項
If P then Q.
Q.
Therefore, P.
8
Invalid: Affirming the consequent 肯定後項
Affirming the consequent is a logical fallacy
( 邏輯謬誤 ) in reasoning
The following are all invalid.
If (P) Jane lives in Shanghai, then (Q) she lives in
China.
(Q) Jane lives in China.
Therefore, (P) Jane lives in Shanghai.
If (P) Peter gambles again, (Q) his mother will be
unhappy.
Today (Q) his mother is unhappy,
so (P) Peter must gamble again.
9
B. Modus Tollens 否定後項
Also called "denying the consequent"
Pattern
If P then Q
Not Q
Therefore not P
10
A. If typhoon signal #8 is A: If P, then Q
effective, we should see the
symbol on TV
P: signal #8 effective
Q: symbol on TV
B. There is no such symbol shown B: Not Q
on TV
C. therefore typhoon signal #8 is C: Not P
not effective.
11
Modus Tollens suggests that the following are
equivalent
If P, then Q
If not Q, then not P
Example
If one is a Legislative Council member, one is a Hong
Kong citizen
If one is not a Hong Kong citizen, one is not a
Legislative Council member
12
Invalid: Denying the antecedent 否定前項
But do not confuse modus tollens with the
following argument, which is a logical fallacy
Denying the antecedent 否定前項
If P then Q.
Not P.
Therefore, not-Q
13
Invalid: Denying the antecedent
These are all invalid arguments
(P) If John is competent, (Q) he will have
been promoted.
(not P) But John is not competent.
(not Q) Therefore John will not be promoted.
(P) If you have a valid octopus card, (Q) you
can travel on the MTR.
(not P) You don’t have a valid octopus card,
(not Q) Therefore, you cannot travel on the
MTR.
14
Summary of the First Two Patterns
Valid Invalid
If P, then Q If P, then Q
P Q
Therefore Q Therefore P
Modus ponens Affirming the consequent
If P, then Q If P, then Q
Not Q Not P
Therefore not P Therefore not Q
Modus tollens Denying the antecedent
15
Exercises
If you love your country, you do not expose
your country’s secrets. Now you expose your
country’s secrets, that means you do not love
your country.
If your husband is unfaithful to you, he
definitely will send you some gifts for no
reasons. Today is nothing special, but he gives
you a diamond necklace. He must have been
unfaithful to you.
16
If Shakespeare wrote War and Peace, then he’s
a great writer. But Shakespeare didn’t write
War and Peace. Therefore, Shakespeare is not
a great writer.
If you’re not aged 65 above, you can’t possess
a senior citizen’s card. You are aged 67, you
possess a senior citizen’s card.
17
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
Pattern
If P then Q.
If Q then R.
Therefore, If P then R.
(P) If you study in CCCU, you have a CCCU student ID
card.
(Q) If you have a CCCU student ID card, (R) you can
enter the library.
(P) Therefore, if you study in CCCU, (R) you can enter
the library.
18
D. Categorical Syllogism ( 直言三段論 )
An argument in which the statements
begin with the word all, some, or no.
All oaks are trees.
All trees are plants.
So, all oaks are plants.
19
Examples
A. No humans are perfect.
B. John is a human.
C. So, John is not perfect.
A. Some Democrats are elected officials.
B. All elected officials are politicians.
C. Therefore, some Democrats are politicians.
20
A. All Buddhists should not eat
meat The premise with
B. Lam is a Buddhist “All” is equivalent
C. therefore Lam should not eat to
the conditional
meat. premise in Modus
Ponens
Is equivalent to
D. If a person is a Buddhist, the
person should not eat meat
E. Lam is a Buddhist
F. therefore Lam should not eat
meat
21
Exercise: Rewrite the argument
A. All humans are mortal
P: human
Q: mortal
B. All Chinese are humans
R: Chinese
C. Therefore, all Chinese are mortal
A. If one is , one is
If then
B. If one is a , one is a
If then
C. Therefore, if one is a , one is
If then
22
Exercise: Rewrite the argument
A. No humans can fly
P: human
Q: can fly
B. All Britons are humans
C. Therefore, no Britons can fly
A. If one is , one
If , then
B. If one is a Briton, one is human
C. Therefore, if one is a Briton, one cannot fly
23
E. Disjunctive Syllogism
Pattern
P or Q
Not-P.
Therefore Q.
For human beings, one must either be (P) a man
or (Q) a woman.
(not P) Hayden is not a man.
(Q) Hayden must be a woman.
24
Examining Complex Premises
Sometimes, the premises are not
expressed in a straightforward manner
Great care should be exercised to
distinguish whether it is
If p then q
If q then p
25
Unless you study hard, you cannot pass
the exam. Now that you have failed. You
must have not studied hard.
P: Study hard
Q: Pass the exam.
Which is true? A or B?
A. If P, then Q
B. If Q, then P
26
Equivalent Expressions of a Premise
A. If there is (P) human life, there is (Q) oxygen
B. (Q) Oxygen is necessary for (P) human life
C. Human beings can only (P) live in places with (Q) oxygen
D. Unless there is (Q) oxygen, human beings cannot (P) live
E. If there is no (Q) oxygen, human beings cannot (P) live
F. A human being can (P) live only if there is (Q) oxygen
G. Human beings must have (Q) oxygen to (P) live
H. It is impossible for humans being to (P) live without (Q)
oxygen
27
1. Identify the antecedent (in
If there is human life, the “if” part) and the
there is oxygen consequent (in the “then”
part)
P: human life, 2. Use P and Q to denote the
antecedent and the
Q: oxygen consequent
If P, then Q 3. Refer to the list and express
it in the format of if-then
4. Note sometimes it can be
“if P then not Q” or
“if not P then Q” or
“if not P then not Q”
28
P: human life / live Q: oxygen
A. Oxygen is necessary for A. If P, then Q
human life
B. Human beings can only B. If P, then Q
live in places with oxygen
C. Unless there is oxygen, C. If not Q,
human beings cannot live then not P
D. If there is no oxygen, D. If not Q,
human beings cannot live then not P
E. A human being can live E. If not Q,
only if there is oxygen then not P
F. Human beings must have F. If not Q,
oxygen to live then not P
G. It is impossible for G. If not Q,
humans being to live then not P
without oxygen 29
Exercise
30
Unless you are a HK
citizen, you cannot vote
P: citizen; Q: vote
You can watch TV only if
you have finished your
homework
P: watch TV; Q: finished
homework
If it is not cloudy, then it is
not raining.
P: cloudy; Q: raining
A passenger can only
smoke in car 10 of the
train
P: smoke; Q: in car 10
31
It is necessary that you
bring your library card in
order to enter the library
P: bring card; Q:enter library
You must be at least 21
years old if you stand for
the Council election
P: 21 years old; Q: stand for
Council election
Only HK citizens aged 65 or
above can enjoy the
benefits of a senior citizen
card.
P: aged 65 or above; Q:
enjoy benefits of a senior
citizen card
32
SOUND ARGUMENT
33
If a person takes 2 grams
Even if an of sugar every day, But this is not
argument is concentration will be true
valid, but if the enhanced.
premises are P: take sugar;
false, the Q: concentration
enhanced The
argument is argument is
senseless! John (P) takes 2 grams of meaningless
sugar every day
John’s (Q) concentration
The
will be enhanced. conclusion is
therefore not
true
34
Sound Argument
If an argument is valid and all the premises are
true, then it is called a sound argument
Soundness =
true premises + valid arguments
A sound argument necessarily has ( 必然有 ) a true
conclusion
In discussion, it is only meaningful if we provide
sound arguments
Show that the arguments are valid, and
The premises are true
35
In your own writing
Examine whether the argument is valid
See if it fits the five valid patterns
Check if there can be counter-example and
faulty assumption
Examine whether the premises are true
Identify evidence to support that the
premises are true
36
Review
Valid patterns Invalid patterns
• Modus Ponens • Affirming the
• Modus Tollens consequent
• Hypothetical • Denying the
syllogism antecedent
• Categorical
syllogism
• Disjunctive
syllogism
37
Reading
Required reading:
A rulebook for arguments, Chapter VI
on “Deductive arguments”.
But we have not discussed “Reductio ad
absurdum”; we will not assess it either.
Supplementary reading:
An introduction to critical thinking and
creativity, Chapter 11 “Arguments
mapping” and Chapter 12 “Arguments
analysis”
38
