Module-2 : Introduction-Modeling Concepts, class Modeling

What is Object Orientation? What is OO development? OO

themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO
modeling history

Modeling as Design Technique: Modeling; abstraction; The

three models.

Class Modeling: Object and class concepts; Link and

associations concepts; Generalization and inheritance; A
sample class model; Navigation of class models; Practical tips.
Object-Oriented Modelling and
Design
Object-Oriented Modelling and Design is a way of
thinking about problems using models organized around
real world concepts. The fundamental construct is the
object, which combines both data and behaviour.
Objects
An object has:

state - descriptive characteristics

behaviors - what it can do (or what can be done to it)

The state of a bank account includes its account number and its
current balance
The behaviors associated with a bank account include the
ability to make deposits and withdrawals
Note that the behavior of an object might change its state

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 Objects

• Objects have three responsibilities:

What they know about themselves – (e.g., Attributes)

What they do – (e.g., Operations)

What they know about other objects – (e.g., Relationships)

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6
Objects
Software objects model read-world objects or abstract concepts
• dog, bicycle, Bank account
Real-world objects have states and behaviors
Dogs' states: name, color, breed, hungry
•
Dogs' behaviors: barking fetching
•
Bicycle ‘s State :
•
Bicycle’ s behavior :
•
Other examples of objects are:
myself – an instructor object.
you – a student object
this room – a room object
this university
your car, etc.
 What is Object-Orientation about?
 One of the key challenges faced by Computer Scientist is how to handle complexity.

 Two main concepts used to manage complexity are Modularity and Abstractions.
 Modularity means breaking a large system up into smaller pieces until each
peace becomes simple enough to be handled easily.

 Abstraction focus on essential aspects of an application while ignoring details.

 Over the years, computer scientists have developed a number of approaches to

achieve modularity and abstraction.

 The latest of these approaches is Object-Orientation or OO for short.

 The key concept in OO is of course Object,

Object-Oriented
Software is organized as a collection of discrete objects that
incorporate both State and behavior.
 Four aspects (characteristics) required by an OO
approach are -
Identity
Classification
Polymorphism
Inheritance

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Identity
 Identity means that data is organized into discrete,
distinguishable entities called objects.

 E.g. for objects: personal computer, bicycle

 Objects can be concrete (such as a file in a file system) or

conceptual (such as scheduling policy in a multiprocessing
OS). Each object has its own inherent identity. (i.e two objects
are distinct even if all their attribute values are identical).

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11
Classification
It means that objects with same data structure (attribute) and
behavior (operations) are grouped into a class.

Each object is said to be an instance of its class.

A class is simply a representation of a type of object. It is the

blueprint/ plan/ template that describe the details of an object.

 A class is the blueprint from which the individual objects are

created.

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 Classes – Example

Class
Attributes
Account
+Owner: Person
+Amount: double
+suspend()
+deposit(sum:double)
+withdraw(sum:double) Operations

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 Classes and Objects – Example

Class Object ivanAccount

+Owner=“ABC"
+Amount=5000.0
Account
+Owner: Person
+Amount: double
Object peterAccount
+suspend() +Owner=“XYZ"
+deposit(sum:double) +Amount=1825.33
+withdraw(sum:double)

kirilAccount
Object +Owner=“CSE”
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+Amount=25.0
Object-Oriented Development
Development refers to Software Life Cycle.

OOD approach encourages software developers to

work and think in terms of the application domain
through most of the software engineering life cycle.

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Object-Oriented Methodology
 The process for OO development and graphical notation for
representing OO concepts consists of building a model of an
application and then adding details to it during design.
The methodology has the following stages:
 System conception : Software development begins with business
analysis or users conceiving an application and formulating tentative
requirements
 Analysis : The analyst must work with the requestor to understand
the problem, because problem statements are rarely complete or
correct.
The analysis model is a precise abstraction of what the desired
system must do, not how it will be done.
It should not contain implementation decisions.

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Object-oriented methodology
 System design: The development teams devise a high – level
strategy – the system architecture for solving the application
problem.
They also establish policies that will serve as a default for the
subsequent, more detailed portions of design.
The system designer must decide what performance characteristics to
optimize, choose a strategy of attacking the problem and make
tentative resource allocations.
 Class design : The class designer adds details to the analysis model
in accordance with the system design strategy.
The focus of class design is the data structures and algorithms needed
to implement each class.
Object-oriented methodology
 Implementation : Implementers translate the classes and
relationships developed during class design into particular
programming language, database or hardware.
During implementation, it is important to follow good software
engineering practice so that traceability to the design is
apparent and so that the system remains flexible and
extensible.
Object oriented Themes
Abstraction: let’s focus on essential aspects of an application while
ignoring details.

Encapsulation :( Information Hiding) separates the external aspects

of an object , that are accessible to other objects from internal
implementation details.

Sharing (reuse)

Emphasis on the essence of an object: OO technology stresses

what an object is, rather than how it is used.

Synergy: Identity, classification, polymorphism, and inheritance

characterize OO languages. Use all together.
Evidence for usefulness of OOD

Evidence for usefulness of OO development

 Applications at General Electric Research and Development Center.(1990)
 OO techniques for developing compilers, graphics, user interfaces,
databases ,an OO language, etc.
 OO technology is a part of the computer science and software engineering
mainstream.
 Important forums: (OOPSLA,ECOOP) Object Oriented Programming
systems, Languages and applications. European Conference on OOP.
OO Modeling history
 Work at GE R&D led to OMT(Object-Modeling Technique) in
1991.
Rumbaugh, Grady Booch on unifying the OMT and Booch Notaions
in 1994.
In 1996 the OMG(Object Management Group) issued a request for
the proposals for a standard OO modeling notation.
1997 UML was accepted by OMG as a standard.
In 2001 OMG released UML
Added features and released UML in 2004.
www.omg.org
What is Modeling

Modeling consists of building an abstraction of reality.

Abstractions are simplifications because:

They ignore irrelevant details and
They only represent the relevant details.

What is relevant or irrelevant depends on the purpose of the

model.
What is a Model
A model is a simplification of reality.
A model may provide
blueprints of a system
Organization of the system
Dynamic of the system

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MODEL
 A model is an abstraction, before building any system a
prototype may be developed. The main purpose of model is
for understanding of the system.

Designer build different kinds of models for various

purposes before constructing things.

For example car , airplane, blueprints of machine parts, Plan

for house construction etc., Models serve many purposes
Importance of Modeling
Models help us
to visualize a system as it is or as we want it to be.
to specify the structure or behavior of a system.
in providing a template that guides us in constructing a
system.
in providing documenting the decisions we have made.

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Purpose of Modeling
Designers build many kinds of models for various purposes
before constructing things.

Models serve several purposes –

Testing a physical entity before building (simulation)

Communication with customer

Visualization

Reduction of complexity

Better understanding of the problem

Purpose of Modeling
Communication with customers
Architects and product designers build models to show
their customers. Mock ups are demonstration products that
imitate some or all of the external behaviour of a system.
Purpose of Modeling

Visualization
Storyboards of movies, television shows and
advertisements let writers see how their ideas flow. They
can modify awkward transitions, and unnecessary
segments before detailed writing begins.
Purpose of Modeling

Reduction of complexity
The main reason for modeling is to deal with systems that
are too complex to understand directly. Models reduce
complexity by separating out a small number of important
things to deal with at a time.
Three models
We use three kinds of models to describe a system from different
view points.

1.Class Model for the objects in the system & their

relationships.

2. State model—for the life history of objects.

Show how systems behave internally
3. Interaction Model—for the interaction among objects.
Show the behaviour of systems in terms of how objects interact
with each other
Class diagrams

Class diagrams provide a graphic notation for modeling

classes and their relationships, thereby describing possible
objects

Note: An object diagram shows individual objects and their

relationships.
Class diagrams
A class is a description of a set of
objects that share the same attributes,
ClassName
operations, relationships, and semantics.

attributes
Graphically, a class is rendered as a
rectangle, usually including its name,
attributes, and operations in separate,
designated compartments.
operations
Class Names

The name of the class is the only required

ClassName tag in the graphical representation of a
class. It always appears in the top-most
compartment.
attributes

operations
Class Attributes

Person

An attribute is a named property of a

class that describes the object being modeled.
name : String In the class diagram, attributes appear in
address : Address
birthdate : Date the second compartment just below the
ssn : Id name-compartment.
Class Operations

Person

name : String
address : Address Operations describe the class behavior
birthdate : Date and appear in the third compartment.
ssn : Id

eat
sleep
work
play
An example of Class

Name
Account_Name
- Custom_Name
Attributes
- Balance
+AddFunds( ) Operations
+WithDraw( )
+Transfer( )
Links and Association
Links and associations are the means for establishing
relationships among objects and classes.

A link is a physical or conceptual connection among objects.

E.g. JoeSmith WorksFor Simplex Company.

An association is a description of a group of links with common

structure and common semantics.
E.g. a person WorksFor a company.

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Conventions used (UML):

Link is a line between objects

Association connects related classes and is also denoted by a line.

Show link and association names in italics.

Association
Associations are inherently bi-directional.

The association name is usually read in a particular direction

but the binary association may be traversed in either direction.
UML Association Notation
 In the UML, a navigable association is represented by an open arrow.

BankAccount Person

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 UML Binary Association Notation

A binary association is drawn as a solid path connecting two classes

or both ends may be connected to the same class.

Company Person

• Self Associated Person

involving class Person

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Associations: Multiplicity
 Multiplicity defines the number of
transports
objects associated with an instance of Car Person

the association. passenger

 UML diagrams explicitly list transports 5

multiplicity at the end of association Car

passenger
Person

lines.
transports *
 Intervals are used to express
Car Person
multiplicity: passenger

transports 1..*
Car Person
passenger

transports 2..5
Car Person
passenger
Associations and Multiplicity
An association is used to show how two classes are related to each other
 Symbols indicating multiplicity are shown at each end of the
association

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 Many-to-one
– Bank has many ATMs, ATM knows only 1 bank

One-to-many
– Inventory has many items, items know 1 inventory
Association Relationships
If two classes in a model need to communicate with each other, there must be link
between them.

An association denotes that link.

Student Instructor
Association Relationships (Cont’d)
We can indicate the multiplicity of an association by adding
multiplicity relationships to the line denoting the association.

The example indicates that a Student has one or more

Instructors:

Student Instructor
1..*
Association Relationships (Cont’d)

The example indicates that every Instructor has one or more Students:

Student Instructor
1..*
Association Relationships (Cont’d)
We can also indicate the behavior of an object in an association (i.e.,
the role of an object) using rolenames.

teaches learns from

Student Instructor
1..* 1..*
one-to-one multiplicity
Multiplicity Constraints
is registered for>
Student Semester
1..*
0..* 1

g>
tak

in
e s>

r
du
ld
he
0..8

is
1..*
teaches> Class
Instructor
Section
1..3 0..6
1..*
is
<works for

in
st
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>
1 sponsors>
1 1..*
Department Course
Coming up: Questions
 Association Ends
Associations have ends. They are called ‘Association Ends’.
They may have names (which often appear in problem
descriptions).
Association Ends
Use of association end names is optional.
But association end names are useful for traversing associations.
Association end names are necessary for associations between
objects of the same class.
When constructing class diagrams you should properly use
association end names and not introduce a separate class for each
reference. Two instances represent a person with a child one for child
and one for parent.
In the correct model, one person instance participates in2 or more
links, twice as a parent and zero or more times as a child.
Example of association ends use
Association: ordering, bag, sequence
On a ‘many” association end, sometimes, it is required that objects
have an explicit order. In this case the ordering is an inherent part of
the association
 A workstation screen contains a number of overlapping windows. Each
window on a screen occurs at most once. The windows have an explicit
order so only the topmost window is visible.
 The ordering is an inherent part of the association. If objects indicate
ordered set objects by
 writing ―{ordered}‖ next to appropriate association end.
 Example:
Association: ordering, bag, sequence
 A bag is a collection of elements with duplicates allowed.
 A sequence is an ordered collection of elements with duplicates allowed
 Bag: collection of elements with duplicates allowed.
 • Sequence: ordered collection of elements with duplicate allowed eg. An
itinerary is a sequence of airports and the same airport can be visited more
than once.
 • Sequence is ordered bag allow duplicates, {ordered} and {sequence}
 only difference is sequence allows duplicates as shown in figure 14.
Association class
 UML offers the ability to describe links of association with
attributes like any class.
An association class is an association that is also a class.
Association class
Examples:
Association class
Example
Qualified Association
 A qualified association is an association in which an attribute called
Qualifier the objects for a ‘many’ association’ end.
 A qualifier selects among the target objects, reducing the effective
multiplicity from ‘many’ to ‘one’.
 Both below models are acceptable but the qualified model adds
information.
Qualified Association

Example:
W ithout qualification

File
1 *

Directory
filename

W ith qualification

1 0..1
Directory filename File

Figure 5-9. Example of how a qualified association reduces multiplicity (UML class diagram). Adding a qualifier
clarifies the class diagram and increases the conveyed information. In this case, the model including the qualification
denotes that the name of a file is unique within a directory.
 Generalization
 Deriving a class out of a parent class having some inherited property(from
the parent class) and some new property of the derived class.
 The term generalization is for the inheritance in the bottom to the up
direction i.e. from derived class to the parent class.
 Generalization is the relationship between a class (superclass) and one or
more variations of the class (subclasses).
 A superclass holds common attributes, attributes and associations.
 The subclasses adds specific attributes, operations, and associations. They
inherit the features of their superclass.
 Generalization is called a “IS A” relationship

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• It is represented by a solid line with a large arrow
head pointing towards the parent class.
• Example:

Vehicle

Car Truck

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Generalization

Customer

Corporate Personal
Customer Customer
Generalization
Relationships

Person
A generalization connects a subclass
to its superclass. It denotes an
inheritance of attributes and behavior
from the superclass to the subclass and
indicates a specialization in the subclass
of the more general superclass.
Student

Software Design (UML)

Generalization Relationships

Vehicle

Bus Truck Car

BoeingAirplane

Boeing 737 Boeing 757 Boeing 767

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 Supertype Example: Customer

Regular Loyalty
Customer Customer

Subtype1 Subtype2
-
 Incident

LowPriority Emergency Disaster

CatInTree EarthQuake ChemicalLeak

TrafficAccident BuildingFire

Figure 5-10. An example of a generalization hierarchy (UML class diagram). The root of the hierarchy represents the
most general concept, whereas the leaves nodes represent the most specialized concepts.
Use of generalization
Used for three purposes:
 Support of polymorphism:
polymorphism increases the flexibility of software.
Adding a new subclass and automatically inheriting superclass
behavior.

 Structuring the description of objects:

Forming a classification, organizing objects according to their
similarities. It is much more profound than modeling each class
individually and in isolation of other similar classes.

 Enabling code reuse:

Reuse is more productive than repeatedly writing code from scratch.
Generalization, Specialization, and Inheritance
 The terms generalization, specialization, and inheritance all refer to aspects
of the same idea.

 Generalization and specialization concern a relationship among classes and

take opposite perspectives, viewed from the superclass or from the
subclasses.

 Generalization derives from the fact that the superclass generalizes the
subclasses

 Specialization refers to the fact that the subclasses refine or specialize the
superclass.

 Inheritance is the mechanism for sharing attributes, operations, and

associations via the generalization/specialization relationship.
 Generalization represents a relationship at the conceptual level
 Inheritance is an implementation technique
 Poor Generalization Example
(violates the “is a” or “is a kind of” heuristic)

Person
attributes
operations

Arm Leg Head

attributes attributes attributes

operations operations operations

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Class model for managing credit card accounts

Institution
MailingAddress CreditCardAccount name
1 * accountNumber address
0..1
address maximumCredit 1 phoneNumber
phoneNumber currentBalance
*
statementDate
accountHolder Transaction
*
transactionDat
Customer Statement e
name
1 0..1
paymentDueDate transactionNumbe explanation
financeCharge r
amount
minimumPayment

CashAdvance Interest Purchase Fee Adjustment

feeType
*
1
Merchant
name
Overloading vs. Overriding
Overloading deals with Overriding deals with two
multiple methods in the methods, one in a parent
same class with the same class and one in a child
name but different class, that have the same
signatures signature

Overloading lets you Overriding lets you define

define a similar operation a similar operation in
in different ways for different ways for different
different data object types

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