Internal Combustion Engines
Engine Operating Characteristics
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 1
Characteristics
Overview
• In this lecture we will learn about basic
engine operation characteristics and
parameters:
– Engine Displacement, Compression Ratio
– Bore/Stroke Ratio
– MEP
– Power & Torque
– A/F ratio
– BSFC
– Various definitions of Efficiency
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 2
Characteristics
Swept Volume
• Volume displaced by
the cylinder travelling
between the BDC and
the TDC.
Vd = VBDC – VTDC
Vd = S B2/4
Where,
– S: Stroke
– B: Bore
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 3
Characteristics
Engine Displacement
• For a multi-cylinder engine:
Vd = N S B2/4
Where,
– N: Number of Cylinders
• Swept Volume for an engine is also known as
the engine displacement
• Engine displacement is usually expressed in cm3
or litres.
• Most passenger cars have a displacement within
the range of 1.0-3.0 litres.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 4
Characteristics
Clearance Volume
• Minimum Cylinder
volume when the
piston is at the TDC.
Vc = VTDC
VBDC = Vc + Vd
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 5
Characteristics
Compression Ratio
• The ratio between the cylinder volume at the
BDC and at the TDC.
rc = VBDC/VTDC
rc = (Vc+Vd)/Vc
• The higher the compression ratio, the higher the
thermal efficiency.
• Compression ratios are in the range of:
– 12-24 for C.I. Engines.
– 8-11 for S.I. Engines. (limited by fuel properties)
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 6
Characteristics
Bore/Stroke Ratio
• The Bore/Stroke (B/S) ratio is the ratio between
the diameter of the piston and the length of its
stroke.
• B/S classifications:
– B/S = 1 (square engine)
– B/S < 1 (under square engine)
– B/S > 1 (over square engine)
• For a given displacement:
longer stroke → less surface area →
less heat losses→ better thermal efficiency
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 7
Characteristics
Bore/Stroke Ratio
• However, increasing the stroke results in
higher piston speed:
U=2*S*N
Where:
–U : Average piston speed (m/s)
–S : Stroke (m)
–N : Engine speed (revolution/s)
• In most automotive applications, the
average piston speed is around 10-15 m/s
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 8
Characteristics
Bore/Stroke Ratio
• The average piston speed is a limiting
design factor:
– Strength of the material (to avoid material
failure)
– Size of the Valves (to allow for sufficient gas
flow through the valves)
• Therefore, as a compromise in most
automotive applications B/S ratios are
generally around 1.0
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 9
Characteristics
Work
• Work can be represented
by the area under the
curve in the Indicator (P-
V) diagram of the engine.
W = ∫ F dx
W = ∫ P A dx
W = ∫ P dV
• This is known as the
indicated work.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 10
Characteristics
Work
• The curve consists of
two loops:
– A: representing the
compression and
power strokes
(Gross indicated work)
– B: representing the
exhaust and intake
strokes
(Pumping work)
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 11
Characteristics
Work
• The Net indicated work is the algebraic
sum of the two:
Wnet = Wgross + Wpump
• This P-V diagram can be plotted for any
engine using a pressure transducer
measuring the pressure in the cylinder and
a position sensor on the piston or the
crankshaft.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 12
Characteristics
Mechanical Efficiency
• The net indicated work is not fully utilised by the
crankshaft.
• A percentage of the work is lost due to friction.
• Another percentage is consumed by parasitic
loads (Supercharger, air conditioning
compressor, oil pump, alternator…etc)
• The actual work available from the crankshaft is
called the brake work.
Wb = Wi - Wf
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 13
Characteristics
Mechanical Efficiency
• The mechanical efficiency for an engine is
defined as the ratio of the brake work to
the indicated work:
mech = Wb/Wi * 100 %
mech ranges from 75-95 % at high speeds
to zero at idling.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 14
Characteristics
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
• A constant average
pressure assumed
to be present in the
cylinder over the
power cycle.
mep = W / Vd
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 15
Characteristics
Mean Effective Pressure
• The mep is a good indication of the engine
performance since it is independent of the
engine size or speed.
• As the mep is dependant on the work,
different versions of it are used
accordingly (bmep, fmep, pmep, gmep,
nmep).
• Typical values for bmep are in the range of
8 – 12 bar (turbocharged are higher than
naturally aspirated engines).
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 16
Characteristics
Power
• Power is the rate of the engine work:
P=(W*N)/n
– N: Engine speed
– n: Number of revolutions / power cycle
• It can also be expressed in terms of the
mep:
P = ( bmep* Vd* N ) / n
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 17
Characteristics
Power
• It can be seen that power can be
increased by increasing the speed, bmep
or the engine displacement.
• Engine displacement is usually a design
limitation and should not be compromised.
• Power is usually measured in kW or hp
(0.7457 kW).
• Typical values of power for modern vehicle
engines are in the range of 60 – 220 kW.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 18
Characteristics
Power
• As in the mep, the definition of power
depends on the definition of work (brake,
indicated, gross, pumping…etc).
• Power can also be expressed in terms of
the speed of the piston and its cross
sectional area:
P = (bmep * U * Ap) / 2 n
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 19
Characteristics
Power
• Power can be linked to the engine size or weight
through a number of parameters:
• Specific power:
SP = P / Ap
• Output per displacement:
OPD = P / Vd
• Specific Volume:
SV = Vd / P
• Specific Weight:
SW = Wt / P
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 20
Characteristics
Torque & Power
• The most common method for measuring power
is by using dynamometers.
• A dynamometer absorbs the engine power by
braking it and measuring the force required to do
so.
• Different types of dynamometers exist: friction,
hydraulic, electromagnetic or electrical.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 21
Characteristics
Torque & Power
• A turning moment around the shaft (Torque)
can be measured from the reaction on the dyno
and so power can be calculated:
P=2T*N
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 22
Characteristics
Torque & Power
• It can be seen that the maximum power is
linked with the maximum speed and
maximum torque.
• Engines can be designed to achieve
power through high torque or high speed.
• Heavy duty vehicles are designed on a
high torque / low speed basis.
• While passenger cars are designed to
yield their maximum power at high speeds.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 23
Characteristics
Torque & Power
• Torque starts decreasing
after reaching a maximum
because of the decreasing
ability of the engine to take a
full charge at high speeds.
• Brake power also starts to
decrease at high speeds
while indicated power
increases. This is due to the
increasing friction losses
which become the dominant
factor.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 24
Characteristics
Activity 2
• Pick a modern passenger car model and
acquire its engine’s specifications sheet.
• Using this sheet, find the following: bore,
stroke, displacement, compression ratio,
max. power, max. torque.
• Then calculate the following: Bore/Stroke
ratio, clearance volume, max avg. piston
speed, bmep at max. power, SP and SV.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 25
Characteristics
Air/Fuel Ratio
• Ratio of air mass to fuel mass used in
combustion:
A/F = ma / mf
• Ideal (Stoichiometric) A/F ratios are
around 15:1
• If more fuel is added, the mixture is called
a rich mixture (A/F 15).
• If excess air is added, the mixture is called
a lean mixture (A/F 15).
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 26
Characteristics
Air/Fuel Ratio
• Gasoline engines usually run with A/F in
the range of (12-18).
• Diesel engines usually run very lean
(18-70).
• Equivalence ratio:
= (A/F)ideal / (A/F)actual
– Rich mixture: 1
– Lean mixture: 1
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 27
Characteristics
Specific Fuel Consumption
• Fuel consumption can be expressed in terms of
(l/100 km).
• This method is dependant on the drive cycle
used. For example:
– Urban Cycle: 10 l/100 km
– Extra Urban Cycle: 5.5 l/100 km
– Mixed Cycle: 7 l/100 km
• A more scientific way to evaluate fuel
consumption is by using the term specific fuel
consumption (sfc).
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 28
Characteristics
Specific Fuel Consumption
• The ratio of the rate of fuel flow to the
engine power:
sfc = fuel consumption /Power
• sfc is usually given in units of kg/kW.hr.
• It can be given as the ifsc (using indicated
power) or more commonly as the bsfc
(using brake power).
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 29
Characteristics
Specific Fuel Consumption
• The bsfc initially
decreases with
increasing speed due
to the relative decrease
of heat losses.
• The curve then reaches
a minimum and then
starts to increase as
the brake power starts
to drop due to friction
losses.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 30
Characteristics
Specific Fuel Consumption
• bsfc & rc:
– bsfc decreases with the increase of the
compression ratio due to the increase of the
thermal efficiency.
• bsfc & A/F ratio:
– bsfc reaches a minimum near stoichiometry.
• bsfc & engine size:
– bsfc decreases with increasing engine size
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 31
Characteristics
Combustion Efficiency
• A measure of the combustion quality or
the fraction of fuel that burns:
c = Q / mf (C.V.)
– Q: Heat released/cycle
– mf : mass of fuel/cycle
– C.V.: Calorific value of the fuel
• Combustion efficiency is usually over 95%
and in many cases can be assumed to be
equal to 1.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 32
Characteristics
Thermal Efficiency
• The ratio of the generated work to the heat
released from the fuel:
t = W / Q
t = W / (c mf C.V.)
• It can be related to the compression ratio
and the thermodynamics of the cycle.
• It can be represented as indicated or
brake thermal efficiency.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 33
Characteristics
Volumetric Efficiency
• Ratio of the actual mass of inhaled mixture
in one cylinder / cycle to the theoretical
mass that could be inducted in the
cylinder:
v = ma / V d
• It can reach 90% at wide open throttle
conditions and drops dramatically when
throttle is closed in S.I. engines.
Internal Combustion Engines Engine Operating 34
Characteristics
