Questions?
Mathematics in the Modern World
Data Management
Lesson 10
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Why study Statistics?
Data are everywhere.
Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions that
affect our lives
No matter what your career, you will make professional
decisions that involve data. An understanding of statistical
methods will help you make these decisions effectively.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Meaning of Statistics
1. The word statistics is used in either two senses.
Commonly used to refer to data.
Principles and methods which have been developed for
handling numerical data.
2. Statistics
is defined as a branch of mathematics or science
that deals with the collection, analysis and interpretation of
numerical information.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Meaning of Statistics contd…
3. Statistics changes numbers into information.
4. Statistics is the art and science of deciding:
what are the appropriate data to collect,
deciding how to collect data efficiently
using data to give information,
using data to answer questions,
using data to make decisions.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Meaning of Statistics contd…
5. Statistics” are data obtained by collecting, processing,
compiling, analyzing, publishing and disseminating results,
gathered from respondents through statistical collections or
from administrative data
6.Statistics is making decisions when there is uncertainty.
We have to make decisions all the time,
in everyday life,
as part of our jobs.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Meaning of Statistics contd…
7. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the
collection,
analysis,
interpretation or explanation, and
presentation of data.
8. Statistics are used for making informed decisions
and misused for other reasons
9. Statistics is the science of learning from data.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Development of Statistics
The word statistics is believed to have been derived
from the word “states”. The administration of
states required the collection and analysis of data
of population and wealth for the purpose of war and
finance.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Development of Statistics contd...
Some concepts of statistics were developed by students of
games of chance, such games lean on probability.
The fertile grounds for application and development of
statistical methods included; insurance, biology and other
natural sciences.
To date, there is hardly any discipline which does not find
statistics useful. Economics, sociology, business, agriculture,
health and education; all lean heavily upon statistics.
Applications of statistical concepts
in the business world
Finance – correlation and regression, index numbers, time
series analysis
Marketing – hypothesis testing, chi-square tests,
nonparametric statistics
Personnel – hypothesis testing, chi-square tests,
nonparametric tests
Operating management – hypothesis testing, estimation,
analysis of variance, time series analysis
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Types of statistics
Descriptive statistics – Methods of organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data in an informative way
Inferential statistics – The methods used to determine
something about a population on the basis of a sample
Population –The entire set of individuals or objects of interest
or the measurements obtained from all individuals or objects
of interest
Sample – A portion, or part, of the population of interest
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Inferential Statistics
Estimation
e.g., Estimate the population
mean weight using the sample
mean weight
Hypothesis testing
e.g., Test the claim that the
population mean weight is 70 kg
Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or making
decisions about a population based on sample results
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Sources of data
1. Primary sources.
Censuses
Surveys
Experiments
The great advantage of such data is that the exact
information wanted is obtained.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Sources of data contd….
Secondary Sources.
Often data is picked from reports and publications
of researchers, institutions and organizations. Such
data is referred to as secondary.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Uses of statistics
Statistics is a discipline which was developed to extract
relevant facts from a large body of information and to help
people make decisions when uncertainty exists concerning
the information.
Statistics form the basis for planning. Statistics provide
information and data (facts and figures) as an input for
planning, monitoring and evaluation of programmes.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Overview on Data
Management
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Data management cycle
Design Enumerators collect
questionnaire data in the field
Design
survey Manual checking,
Conception editing etc.
Reporting of results
Data entered
Data onto computer
analysis
Computer data management
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
PLANNING THE SURVEY
Identify the relevant Indicators
Check to ensure the existence of an appropriate
Sampling Frame
Choose the Sample Design [Methodology]
Determine the Sample size and the associated cost of
the survey
Train data collectors
Determine how to collect, process, and analyse the data
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
PLANNING THE SURVEY...Contd
Determine the work-plan closely linking it to the budget.
Consider the financial, material, and human resource
available
All these must be well perceived and well arranged at
this stage. A failure can derail the survey.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Data collection
Data could be collected by:
conducting a census
conducting a sample survey
use of administrative records
conducting experiments
observation
and review of secondary sources
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS IN DATA COLLECTION
STEP 1
Formulate the problem
Develop objectives of data collection
Plan, human resource, logistics, scheduling, budgeting
Discuss with stakeholders
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 2
Determine sources of information
Define approach to data collection
Identify concepts, definitions and classifications to be
used
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 3:
Determine techniques of data collection
Determine best approach to data collection
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 4:
Prepare data collection forms
Design data collection forms
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 5:
Pretest data collection instruments
Collect some information to refine the
questionnaire/ data collection form.
Determine feasibility of obtaining data
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 6:
Finalize data collection forms
Discuss final questionnaire/form with stakeholders
and reproduce questionnaires/forms
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
STEPS OF DATA COLLECTION …
Contd
STEP 7:
Collect data
Put in place a team of data collectors/
fieldworkers
Train data collectors
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect
information about our objects of study; and about the
setting in which they occur.
Data collection techniques generate both qualitative and
quantitative data.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA COLLECTION … Contd
Qualitative techniques of data collection involve the
identification and exploration of a number of related
variables for in-depth understanding of the phenomena.
Qualitative data is often recorded in a narrative form.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA COLLECTION … Contd
Quantitative techniques of data collection are used to
generate quantifiable data.
Both qualitative and quantitative techniques are often used
in a single study, since the two compliment each other.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
QUALITATIVE METHODS
The qualitative methods most commonly used
in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories:
In-depth interview
Observation methods
Document review
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
QUALITATIVE METHODS …Contd
These methods are characterized by the
following attributes:
They tend to be open-ended and
have less structured protocols
They rely more heavily on
interactive interviews;
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
QUALITATIVE METHODS …Contd
They use triangulation to increase the credibility
of their findings
Generally, their findings are not generalizable to
any specific population
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
SOME QUALITATIVE METHODS
In-Depth interview
Participant observation
Direct observation
Document/literature review
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Typical quantitative data gathering
strategies include:
Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the
number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the
day).
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
QUANTITATIVE METHODS …
Contd
Obtaining relevant data from management information
systems.
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions
COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS
STEPS
Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (
Data Preparation)
Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
Testing Hypotheses and Models (
Inferential Statistics)
Sampling
a sample should have the same characteristics
as the population it is representing.
Sampling can be:
with replacement: a member of the population may be chosen more than once
(picking the candy from the bowl)
without replacement: a member of the population may be chosen only once
(lottery ticket)
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Sampling methods
Sampling methods can be:
random (each member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected)
nonrandom
The actual process of sampling causes sampling
errors. For example, the sample may not be large
enough or representative of the population. Factors not
related to the sampling process cause nonsampling
errors. A defective counting device can cause a
nonsampling error.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Random sampling methods
simple random sample (each sample of the same size has an equal
chance of being selected)
stratified sample (divide the population into groups called strata and
then take a sample from each stratum)
cluster sample (divide the population into strata and then randomly
select some of the strata. All the members from these strata are in
the cluster sample.)
systematic sample (randomly select a starting point and take every n-
th piece of data from a listing of the population)
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Descriptive Statistics
Collect data
e.g., Survey
Present data
e.g., Tables and graphs
Summarize data
X i
e.g., Sample mean =
n
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Statistical data
The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being studied
is commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-consuming part
of the entire research project.
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items.
Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis desired
Secondary data have already been compiled and are available for
statistical analysis
A variable is an item of interest that can take on many different
numerical values.
A constant has a fixed numerical value.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or measuring items. Most data can
be put into the following categories:
Qualitative - data are measurements that each fail into one of several categories.
(hair color, ethnic groups and other attributes of the population)
quantitative - data are observations that are measured on a numerical scale
(distance traveled to college, number of children in a family, etc.)
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Qualitative data
Qualitative data are generally described by words or
letters. They are not as widely used as quantitative data
because many numerical techniques do not apply to the
qualitative data. For example, it does not make sense to
find an average hair color or blood type.
Qualitative data can be separated into two subgroups:
dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two options (gender -
male or female)
polynomic (if it takes the form of a word with more than two options
(education - primary school, secondary school and university).
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Quantitative data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the
result of counting or measuring attributes of a population.
Quantitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of students of a
given ethnic group in a class, the number of books on a shelf, ...)
continuous (if it is the result of measuring (distance traveled, weight
of luggage, …)
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Types of variables
Variables
Qualitative Quantitative
Dichotomic Polynomic Discrete Continuous
Children in Amount of income
Gender, marital Brand of Pc, hair
family, Strokes on tax paid, weight
status color
a golf hole of a student
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Numerical scale of measurement:
Nominal – consist of categories in each of which the number of respective
observations is recorded. The categories are in no logical order and have
no particular relationship. The categories are said to be mutually
exclusive since an individual, object, or measurement can be included in
only one of them.
Ordinal – contain more information. Consists of distinct categories in which
order is implied. Values in one category are larger or smaller than values in
other categories (e.g. rating-excelent, good, fair, poor)
Interval – is a set of numerical measurements in which the distance
between numbers is of a known, sonstant size.
Ratio – consists of numerical measurements where the distance between
numbers is of a known, constant size, in addition, there is a nonarbitrary
zero point.
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA PREPARATION
Checking the data for completeness accuracy
Preparing data entry screen
Entering the data into the computer
Transforming the data
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA PRESENTATTION AND
DESCRIPTION
Used to describe the basic features of the data in a study
Tables and Graphs
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DATA DESCRIPTION
They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.
Simply describing what is; what the data shows
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
DESCRIPTION … Contd
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, median, mode
Measures of Dispersion
Variation
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
HOW TO DESCRIBE DATA WELL
Look at the oddities in the data and be prepared to adapt
the summaries you calculate
Look at the data using tables and graphs
Understand how to summarise the categorical variables
Understand how to summarise the numerical variables
Identify any structure in your data and use it to summarise
your data
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Investigate questions, models and hypotheses.
Confidence Intervals
Hypothesis testing
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Activity 8
Data Management
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
Formulate a question
Example: What is the favorite color among mothers in
our neighborhood?
Collect Data
Present Data
Interpret the Data
Mathematics in the Modern World Lesson 10 – Data Management
