Seeley’s

ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
Twelfth Edition

VANPUTTE, REGAN,
RUSSO

©2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 02

The Chemical Basis of Life

Lecture Outline

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 2.1 Basic Chemistry
Matter, Mass, and Weight.
• Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass.
• Mass: the amount of matter in an object.
• International unit for mass = kilogram (kg).
• Weight: the gravitational force acting on an object of a given
mass.
Elements and Atoms.
• Element: the simplest type of matter with unique chemical
properties; composed of atoms of only one kind.
• Atom: smallest particle of an element that has chemical
characteristics of that element.
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 Atomic Structure
Atoms: composed of subatomic
particles.
• Neutrons: no electrical charge.
• Protons: one positive charge.
• Electrons: one negative charge.
Nucleus: formed by protons and
neutrons.
Most of the volume of an atom
occupied by electrons.
• Represented as an electron cloud.
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 Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic Number: equal to
number of protons in
each atom, which is
equal to the number of
electrons.
Mass Number: number
of protons plus number
of neutrons.

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 Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Isotopes: two or more forms of same element with same number of
protons and electrons but different neutron number.
• For example; there are three types of hydrogen.
• Denoted by using symbol of element preceded by mass number as 1H, 2H, 3H.
Atomic Mass: average mass of naturally occurring isotopes.

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 The Mole and Molar Mass
Avogadro’s Number: 6.022 × 1023.
Mole: Avogadro’s number of atoms, ions,
molecules.
Molar mass: mass of one mole of a substance in
grams, which is equal to its atomic mass units.

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 Electrons and Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonds are formed when electrons in the
outermost energy level (valence shell) are either shared
with or transferred to another atom.
• Ionic Bonding: atoms exchange electrons.
• Covalent Bonding: two or more atoms share electron pairs.
Type of chemical bond between
two atoms is determined
by their difference in
electronegativity.
• Ability to attract electrons.

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 Ionic Bonds
Ions: atoms that have gained or lost an electron.
• Cations are positively charged.
• Anions are negatively charged.
In an ionic bond, electrons are transferred between atoms,
creating oppositely charged ions that are attracted to each other.
• E.g., Na+ and Cl− form an ionic bond, resulting in NaCl.

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 Covalent Bonds 1

Atoms share one or more pairs

of electrons because the atoms
have similar electronegativities.
• Single covalent: two atoms
share one pair of electrons.
• Double covalent: Two atoms
share 4 electrons.
• Nonpolar covalent: Electrons
shared equally because nuclei
attract the electrons equally.
• Polar covalent: Electrons not
shared equally because one
nucleus attracts the electrons
more than the other does.
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 Covalent Bonds 2

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 Molecules and Compounds
Molecules: two or more atoms chemically combine
to form an independent unit.
• Example: a hydrogen molecule (H2).
Compounds: a substance composed of two or more
different types of atoms chemically combined.
• Example: water (H2O).
Molecular Mass: determined by adding up atomic
masses of its atoms or ions.
• Example: NaCl (22.99 + 35.45).
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 Intermolecular Forces
Forces between molecules.
Result from weak electrostatic attractions
between oppositely charged parts or molecules,
or between ions and molecules.
Weaker than forces producing chemical bonding.

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 Hydrogen Bonds
Occur when the positively
charged H of one molecule is
attracted to the negatively
charged O, N, or F of another
molecule.
• For example, in water, the
positively charged hydrogen
atoms of one water molecule
bond with the negatively charged
oxygen atoms of other water
molecules.
• Hydrogen bonds play an
important role in determining
the shape of complex molecules.
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 Solubility and Dissociation
Solubility: ability of one
substance to dissolve in
another.
• For example, sugar or salt
dissolves in water.
Dissociation (separation): in
ionic compounds, cations are
attracted to negative end and
anions attracted to positive
end of water molecules; the
ions separate and each
becomes surrounded by
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 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Electrolytes: solutions made by the dissociation
of cations (+) and anions (−) in water.
• Have the capacity to conduct an electric current.
• Currents can be detected by electrodes.
Nonelectrolytes: solutions made by molecules
that dissolve in water, but do not dissociate; do
not conduct electricity.

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 2.2 Chemical Reactions and Energy
Chemical reaction: Atoms, ions, molecules or
compounds interact to form or break chemical bonds.
• Reactants: substances that enter into a chemical
reaction.
• Products: substances that result from the reaction.
Chemical bonds are made (synthesis; anabolism) and
broken (decomposition; catabolism) during chemical
reactions.
Metabolism: collective term used for the sum of all of
the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body.
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 Synthesis Reactions
Two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and
larger product. Collective term for synthesis reactions in body =
anabolism.
• Chemical bonds made; energy stored in the bonds.
• Responsible for growth, maintenance and repair.
• Dehydration reaction: synthetic reaction where water is a product.
• Produce chemicals characteristic of life: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids.
• Also involved in formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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 Decomposition Reactions
A large reactant is broken down to form smaller products.
Collective term for decomposition reactions in body =
catabolism.
• Chemical bonds broken; energy released.
• Hydrolysis reactions: water is split into two parts that contribute to the
formation of the products.
• Example: the breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate
with a release of free energy.

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 Reversible Reactions
Chemical reactions in which the reaction can
proceed either from reactants to products or
from products to reactants.
Equilibrium: rate of product formation is equal
to rate of reactant formation.
Example: CO2 reacting with water to form
bicarbonate and H+ in blood plasma.
• CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3−.
• CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3−.
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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation: loss of an electron by a substance.
Reduction: gain of an electron by a substance
Oxidation-reduction reactions: the complete or
partial loss of an electron by one substance is
accompanied by the gain of that electron by
another substance.
• Synthetic/decomposition reactions can be oxidation-
reduction reactions.
• Reactions can be described in more than one way.
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 Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work (for example,
to move matter).
• Potential energy: energy stored in chemical bonds;
energy that could do work if it were released. Breaking
chemical bonds releases energy.
• Kinetic energy: does work and moves matter.
• Mechanical energy: energy resulting from the position or
movement of objects.
• Chemical energy: form of potential energy in the
chemical bonds of a substance.
• Heat energy: energy that flows between objects of
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 Energy and Chemical Reactions

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 Heat Energy
When a chemical bond is broken and energy is
released, only some of that energy is used to
manufacture ATP.
Energy that is released but not captured is
released as heat.
Heat is used by mammals to maintain body
temperature.

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 Speed of Chemical Reactions
Activation Energy: minimum energy reactants must have to start a
chemical reaction.
Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions
without being permanently changed or depleted.
• Enzymes: protein catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions
by lowering the activation energy necessary for reaction to begin.
Other influences on reaction rate:
• Temperature.
• Increase in temperature means increase of kinetic energy.
• Molecules move faster, collide harder and more frequently.
• Concentration of reactants.
• As concentration of reactants increases, rate of reaction increases
• Example: A decrease of O2 in cells can cause death as rate of aerobic
chemical reactions decreases.
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 Activation Energy and Enzymes

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 2.3 Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry: substances that do not
contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.
• Water, oxygen, calcium phosphate, metal ions.
• Exceptions: CO, CO2, and HCO3−.
Organic Chemistry: study of carbon-containing
substances.

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 Water
Its polar nature influences interaction with other molecules.
• Hydrophilic: substances attracted to water; “water-loving”.
• Hydrophobic: substances not attracted to water; “water-fearing”.
Cohesion and adhesion properties.
50-60% of body, 92% of blood.
Large amount of heat can be absorbed by water.
• Stabilizes body temperature.
Protection.
• Lubricant, cushion.
Participates in chemical reactions.
• Many reactions take place in water.
• Dehydration and hydrolysis.
Serves as a mixing medium.
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 Water as a Mixing Medium
Mixture: substances physically but not chemically
combined.
• Suspension: materials separate unless stirred.
• Sand and water.
• Colloid: dispersal of tiny particles through a medium
(for example, milk).
Solution: mixture of liquids, gasses, or solids that are
uniformly distributed and chemically combined.
• Solvent: that which dissolves the solute.
• Solute: that which dissolves in the solvent.
*Blood is a mixture, solution, and colloid. 2-29
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 Solution Concentrations
Concentration: measure of number of particles of
solute per volume of solution.
• Osmolality: reflects the number of particles dissolved
in one kilogram of water.
• One osmole is equal to Avogadro’s number of particles
in one kilogram of water.
• Unit used by physiologists is milliosmoles because of
the low concentrations in the human body.
• Concentration of body fluids influences movement of
fluid into and out of cells.
• 300 mOsm is average in the human body.
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 Acids and Bases; Salts and Buffers
Acid: a proton donor or any substance that
releases hydrogen ions.
Base: a proton acceptor or any substance that
binds to or accepts hydrogen ions.
Salt: a compound consisting of a cation other
than a hydrogen ion and an anion other than a
hydroxide ion. Example: NaCl.
Buffer: a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair in
which acid and base components occur in similar
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 The pH Scale 1

Refers to the hydrogen ion

concentration in a
solution.
• Neutral: pH of 7 or equal
hydrogen and hydroxide
ions.
• Acidic: a greater
concentration of hydrogen
ions.
• Alkaline (basic): a greater
concentration of hydroxide
ions.
• Physiologic pH is 7.4.
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 The pH Scale 2

(Oven cleaner) ©Jeffrey B. Banke/Shutterstock; (Bleach) ©dcwcreations/Shutterstock; (Household ammonia) ©McGraw-Hill Education/Terry Wild Studio, photographer;
(Blood (pH 7.4)) ©Andrii Vodolazhskyi/Shutterstock; (Distilled water (pH 7.0)) ©kobi nevo/Shutterstock; (Black coffee) ©Pixtal/SuperStock; (Tomatoes) ©Alamy;
Vinegar, cola, beer ©lconotec/Giow lmages; (Lemon juice ©Iynx/iconotec.com/Giow lmages

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 Buffers 1

Resist changes in pH.

Act as conjugate acid-base pairs.
Important biological buffers:
• Bicarbonate.
• Phosphates.
• Proteins.

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 Buffers 2

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 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen (O2): required in the final step in the
series of reactions used to extract energy from
food.
Carbon dioxide (CO2): produced during the
catabolism of organic compounds.
• Metabolic waste product.
• Combines with water in plasma and forms H+ thus
affecting acid-base balance.

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 2.4 Organic Chemistry
Four major groups of organic molecules essential to living
organisms:
• Carbohydrates: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
• Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
• Energy sources and structure.
• Lipids: composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
• Relatively insoluble in water.
• Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component
of cell membranes, energy source.
• Proteins: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sometimes iodine.
• Functions: regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle
contraction, structure, energy.
• Nucleic Acids: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus.
• Examples: ATP, DNA, RNA.
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 Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Simple sugars.
Six-carbon sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose are
important in the diet as energy sources.
• Some are isomers, molecules that have the same
number/types of atoms but differ in their 3-D arrangement.
Five-carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA and RNA.

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 Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Two simple sugars bound together by a
dehydration reaction.
Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose.

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 Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Long chains of many monosaccharides.
Storage molecules for monosaccharides and form part of cell
surface markers.
Glycogen formed by animals.
Starch and cellulose
formed by plants.
• Starch in food is used as
a source of monosaccharides.
• Cellulose in food acts as fiber
(bulk) in the diet.

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 Lipids: Fats
Ingested and broken down by hydrolysis.
• Triglycerides: composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
• Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group.
• Fatty acids combine with glycerol to form triglyceride.
• Functions: protection, insulation, energy source.

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 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty
Acids
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated.
• Saturated – contains all single bonds in the carbon chain, which produces
a more rigid structure.
• Unsaturated – contains one (mono) or more (poly) double bonds in the
carbon chain, which produces a more relaxed structure.
• Better because they do not stick to the inside of blood vessels.
• Trans fats – unsaturated fats that are artificially altered to be more
saturated. Are the highest CV risk fat.

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 Lipids: Phospholipids
Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) at
the other.
• Function: important structural component of cell membranes.

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 Lipids: Eicosanoids and
Fat-soluble Vitamins
Eicosanoids: Derived from fatty acids.
• Function: important regulatory molecules.
• Include thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins.
Fat-soluble Vitamins: nonpolar molecules essential for
normal functioning.

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 Lipids: Steroids
Lipids with four ringlike structures.
Examples:
• Cholesterol – component of cell membranes; precursor for steroid
hormones.
• Bile salts – digestion of lipids.
• Estrogen, testosterone – steroid hormones.

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 Proteins
Amino acids: building
blocks of protein.
Peptide bonds:
covalent bonds
formed between
amino acids during
protein synthesis.

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 Amino Acids

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 Protein Structure 1

Primary structure: the

amino acid sequence
Secondary structure:
results from hydrogen
bonding between
amino acids.
• Pleated (folded)
sheets.
• Helices.

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 Protein Structure 2

Tertiary structure: large-

scale folding due to
interactions within
protein and surrounding
environment.
• Determines shape of a
domain.
Quaternary structure:
results from the
association of two or
more proteins.
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 Enzymes
Lower the activation energy necessary for a
reaction to occur; bring reactants into close
proximity.
Three-dimensional shape contains an active
site where reactants attach.
Lock-and-key model: reaction occurs when
reactants bind to active site.
Induced fit model: enzymes change shape to
accommodate the shape of specific reactants.
Enzyme names usually end in –ase and often
have the same word stem as the reactant; for
example, a lipid is a reactant for lipase.
Cofactors: combine with active site and make
nonfunctional enzymes functional.
• Organic cofactors called coenzymes.
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 Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.
• Include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA),
and ATP.

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 Nitrogenous Bases
Nucleotides.
• Composed of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a
nitrogenous base, and a phosphate.

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 DNA
Genetic material of cells copied from one generation to
next.
Composed of 2 strands of nucleotides.
• A and T; G and C = complementary base pairs.
• Connect like rungs of a ladder to form double helix.
The two strands of a DNA molecule are antiparallel.
• Sugar-phosphate backbones oriented in opposite directions.
Gene: sequence that codes for synthesis of RNA or
protein.

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 Structure of DNA

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 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy currency of the body.

• Removal of third phosphate yields adenosine diphosphate (ADP) + energy.
Provides energy for other chemical reactions as anabolism or drive
cell processes as muscle contraction.
All energy-requiring chemical reactions stop when there is
inadequate ATP.
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