Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
2.1 Operating System Services
Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs and
services to programs and users
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to
the user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface
(UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch, in which commands and directives to control
those commands are entered into files, and those files are
executed.
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into
memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Services (Cont.)
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
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Operating System Services (Cont.)
Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory,, I/O devices.
file storage
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multi
user or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts
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A View of Operating System Services
Figure 2.1 A view of operating system services.
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User Operating System Interface - CLI
CLI or command interpreter allows direct command
entry
Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by
systems program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and
executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just
names of programs
If the latter, adding new features doesn’t
require shell modification
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2.3 System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
System calls provide an interface to the services made available by
an operating system.
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API
for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX,
Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine
(JVM)
Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic
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Example of System Calls
System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file
Figure 2.5 Example of how system calls are used.
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Example of Standard API
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System Call Implementation
Typically, a number associated with each system call
System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these
numbers
The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS kernel
and returns status of the system call and any return values
The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result
call
Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into
libraries included with compiler)
unistd.h is the name of the header file that provides access to
the POSIX operating system API.
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API – System Call – OS Relationship
Figure 2.6 The handling of a user application invoking the open() system call.
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API – System Call – OS Relationship
The relationship between an API, the system-call interface, and the operating
system is shown in Figure 2.6, which illustrates how the operating system
handles a user application invoking the open() system call.
System calls occur in different ways, depending on the computer in use.
Often, more information is required than simply the identity of the desired
system call.
The exact type and amount of information vary according to the
particular operating system and call.
For example, to get input, we may need to specify the file or device to use as
the source, as well as the address and length of the memory buffer into which the
input should be read.
Of course, the device or file and length may be implicit in the call.
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System Call Parameter Passing
Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed
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Parameter Passing via Table
Figure 2.7 Passing of parameters as a table.
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2.4 Types of System Calls
1. Process control
create process, terminate process
end, abort
load, execute
get process attributes, set process attributes
wait for time
wait event, signal event
allocate and free memory
Dump memory if error
Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
Locks for managing access to shared data between processes
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Types of System Calls
2. File management
create file, delete file
open, close file
read, write, reposition
get and set file attributes
3. Device management
request device, release device
read, write, reposition
get device attributes, set device attributes
logically attach or detach devices
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Types of System Calls (Cont.)
4. Information maintenance
get time or date, set time or date
get system data, set system data
get and set process, file, or device attributes
5. Communications
create, delete communication connection
send, receive messages if message passing model to host name or
process name
From client to server
Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory regions
transfer status information
attach and detach remote devices
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Types of System Calls (Cont.)
6. Protection
Control access to resources
Get and set permissions
Allow and deny user access
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Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls
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Standard C Library Example
C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system
call
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Example: MS-DOS
Single-tasking
Shell invoked when system
booted
Simple method to run program
No process created
Single memory space
Loads program into memory,
overwriting all but the kernel
Program exit -> shell reloaded
At system startup running a program
Figure 2.9 MS-DOS execution. (a) At system startup. (b) Running a
program.
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Example: FreeBSD
Unix variant
Multitasking
User login -> invoke user’s choice of
shell
Shell executes fork() system call to
create process
Executes exec() to load program into
process
Shell waits for process to terminate
or continues with user commands
Process exits with:
code = 0 – no error
code > 0 – error code
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2.5 System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:
File manipulation
Status information
File modification
Programming language support
Program loading and execution
Communications
Background services
Application programs
1. Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system programs,
not the actual system calls
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
System Programs
Provide a convenient environment for program development and execution
Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are
considerably more complex
File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and
generally manipulate files and directories
Status information
Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory,
disk space, number of users
Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information
Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or
other output devices
Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve
configuration information
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
System Programs (Cont.)
File modification
Text editors to create and modify files
Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers
and interpreters sometimes provided
Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable
loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for
higher-level and machine language
Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer systems
Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse
web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer
files from one machine to another
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
System Programs (Cont.)
Background Services
Launch at boot time
Some for system startup, then terminate
Some from system boot to shutdown
Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error logging,
printing
Run in user context not kernel context
Known as services, subsystems, daemons
Application programs
Don’t pertain to system
Run by users
Not typically considered part of OS
Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
2.7 Operating System Structure
General-purpose OS is very large program
Various ways to structure ones
Simple structure – MS-DOS
More complex -- UNIX
Layered – an abstrcation
Microkernel -Mach
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Simple Structure -- MS-DOS
MS-DOS – written to provide the
most functionality in the least
space
Not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some
structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated
Figure 2.11 MS-DOS layer
structure.
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Non Simple Structure -- UNIX
UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, Like MS-DOS, the
original UNIX operating system had limited structuring. The
UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
Systems programs
The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level
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Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered
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Layered Approach
The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each
built on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the
user interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions
(operations) and services of only lower-level layers.
The main advantage of the layered approach is simplicity of
constructionand debugging.
The layers are selected so that each uses functions (operations)and
services of only lower-level layers.
This approach simplifies debugging and system verification.
ayers.
The major difficulty with the layered approach involves appropriately
defining the various layers. Because a layer can use only lower-level
layers, careful planning is necessary.
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Layered Approach
Figure 2.13 A layered operating
system.
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Microkernel System Structure
Carnegie Mellon University developed an operating system called
Mach that modularized the kernel using the microkernel approach.
This method structures the operating system by removing all
nonessential components from the kernel and implementing them
as system and user-level programs. The result is a smaller kernel.
Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
More secure
Detriments:
Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Microkernel System Structure
Application File Device user
Program System Driver mode
messages messages
Interprocess memory CPU kernel
Communication managment scheduling mode
microkernel
hardware
Figure 2.14 Architecture of a typical microkernel.
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2.7.5 Hybrid Systems
Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure
model
Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address
performance, security, usability needs
Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of
functionality
Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for
different subsystem personalities
we explore the structure of three hybrid systems: the Apple
Mac OS X operating system and the two most prominent
mobile operating systems—iOS and Android.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Mac OS X Structure
graphical user interface
Aqua
application environments and services
Java Cocoa Quicktime BSD
kernel environment
BSD
Mach
I/O kit kernel extensions
Figure 2.16 The Mac OS X structure.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Mac OS X Structure
The Apple Mac OS X operating system uses a hybrid structure,it is a
layered system.
The top layers include the Aqua user interface and a set of
application environments and services.
Notably, the Cocoa environment specifies an API for the Objective-C
programming language, which is used for writing Mac OS X
applications.
Below these layers is the kernel environment, which consists
primarily of the and the .
Mach microkernel microkernel provides memory management;
support for remote procedure calls (RPCs) and interprocess
communication (IPC) facilities, including message passing; and thread
scheduling.
The BSD(Berkeley Software Distribution) UNIX kernel component
provides a BSD command-line interface, support for networking and
file systems, and an implementation of POSIX APIs, including
Pthreads.
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iOS
Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad
Structured on Mac OS X, added
functionality
Does not run OS X applications natively
Also runs on different CPU architecture
(ARM vs. Intel)
Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for
developing apps
Media services layer for graphics, audio,
video
Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel
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Android
Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
Open Source
Similar stack to IOS
Based on Linux kernel but modified
Provides process, memory, device-driver management
Adds power management
Run-time environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik virtual
machine(The Dalvik Virtual Machine (DVM) is an android virtual
machine optimized for mobile devices. )
Apps developed in Java plus Android API
Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated to
executable than runs in DVM
Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc
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Applications
Android Architecture
Application Framework
Libraries Android runtime
SQLite openGL Core Libraries
surface media
Dalvik
manager framework
virtual machine
webkit libc
Figure 2.18 Architecture of Google’s Android.
Linux kernel
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2.10 System Boot
When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed
memory location
Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed
location loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader
from disk
Common bootstrap loader, GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader)
allows selection of kernel from multiple disks, versions, kernel
options
Kernel loads and system is then running
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End of Chapter 2
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
