Refrigeration and

Air Conditioning

Lecturers: Michael G. (M.Sc)

Course code: MEng 4191

Chapter Two

Vapor Compression
Refrigeration System
 Content

1. Introduction to VCRS

2. Carnot refrigeration system and its

limitations

3. vapor compression refrigeration

system

4. Comparison with Carnot

refrigeration system

5. Analysis of VCRS

6. Modifications of VCRS

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1. Introduction

 In a vapor refrigeration cycle, the

working fluid undergoes phase change

at least during one heat transfer process
of the cycle.

 Vapor refrigeration system can be

classified into:
 Vapor compression systems
 Vapor absorption systems
 Vapor jet systems

 Vapor compression refrigeration

system (VCRS) are the most widely

used among all refrigeration systems.
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1. Introduction

 In a vapor compression refrigeration system:

 Refrigeration effect is obtained as the
refrigerant evaporates at low
temperature.
 The system input is in the form of
mechanical energy required to run the
compressor (Mechanical refrigeration
system)
 Available to suit almost all applications,
with refrigeration capacities ranging from
few watts to few megawatts
 Carnot vapor compression refrigeration
cycle is used as a reference to evaluate the
actual VCRS

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1. Introduction

 Refrigeration: The transfer of heat from lower

temperature regions to higher temperature is
called refrigeration.

 Refrigerant: The working fluid used in

refrigerators are called refrigerant.

 Refrigerator: Devices that produces

refrigeration are called refrigerators.

 Heat Pump: Refrigerator used for the purpose

of heating a space by transferring heat from a
cooler medium are called heat pump.
 Coefficient of refrigeration:

Desired Output
 Tons of refrigeration: COP 
Required net input

Desired Output[MJ/min]
TOR[ton] 
6
211KJ/min
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1. Introduction

 COP (coefficient of performance): The

performance of refrigeration and heat pumps
are expressed in terms of COP.

Desired Output Cooling effect QL

COPR   
Required Input Work input Wnet ,in

Desired Output Heating effect QL

COPHP   
Required Input Work input Wnet ,in

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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

 Carnot refrigeration cycle is completely

reversible cycle
 It is used as a model of perfection for a
refrigeration cycle operating between constant
temperature heat source and sink.
 It is used as a reference against which the real
cycles are compared.

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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

Four reversible processes:

PC

TC Pe
Wout
Win
Te

Process Description
2-3 Isentropic compression
3-4 Constant pressure heat
rejection in the condenser
4-1 Throttling in an expansion valve
1-2 Constant pressure heat
addition in the evaporator

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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

PC
Wout Win
TC Pe

Te

 Q cycle   Wcycle
4
qc  q34    Tds  Tc ( S3  S 4 )

 Q  q1 2  q3 4  qe  qc
3

cycle 2
qe  q1 2    Tds  Te ( S1  S 2 )

 W
1

cycle  W41  W23  Wout  Win  Wnet

 (qc  qe )  Wnet

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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

PC
Wout Win
TC Pe

Te

2-3 Isentropic compression: S2=S3

4-1 Throttling in an expansion valve: S4=S1
Carnot cycle for refrigeration
Desired Output Te (S2 - S1 ) Te
COPR   
Net work Input Tc (S3 - S4 ) - Te (S2 - S1 ) Tc  Te

Carnot cycle for heat pump

Desired Output Tc (S3 - S4 ) Tc
COPHp   
Net work Input Tc (S3 - S4 ) - Te (S2 - S1 ) Tc  Te

 COP  f (Te , Tc )
Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of TOR. 1TOR is
equivalent 211 kJ/min. TOR=(Ref Effect)/211KJ/min
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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

 COP of carnot cycle is a function of heat source

and sink temperatures only
 COP is independent of the nature of the working
fluid.

 Between the same heat source and sink, Carnot

COP is the maximum possible COP.
 COP of all actual cycles will be less than
the Carnot COP!!

 Carnot COP increases as the evaporator

temperature increases and condenser
temperature decreases.

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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

 Carnot COP increases as the evaporator

temperature increases and condenser
temperature decreases.

 Carnot COP increases rapidly with Tc especially

for high Tc.

 Carnot COP deccreases as Tc decreases,

however at low Tc, the effect of Tc on COP is
marginal.
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2. Carnot refrigeration cycle

Practical difficulties with CRS

 Wet compression may damage the compressor
 Extraction of work by expanding saturated
liquid in a turbine is not economically justified,
especially for smaller systems
 For steady flow and neglecting kinetic and
potential energies, the work output of a
turbine is given by:

WT   vdp
 Liquids have small specific volume, giving
smaller work output from the turbine
 In actual turbine, there is irreversibility, so the
power output will be even smaller.

Modification of CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Vapor compression refrigeration system

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 This system is a modification of the Carnot
refrigeration system
 Isothermal heat rejection process is
replaced by isobaric heat rejection

 Isentropic expansion of liquid is replaced

by isenthalpic throttling

 This cycle is know as reverse Rankine

cycle

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Standard S-VCRS
 Exit conditions of evaporator and condenser
are saturated
 The cycle consists of one low-side pressure and
one high-side pressure
 Compression is isentropic
 Expansion is isenthapic

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Standard S-VCRS

 Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapor in

compressor
 Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser
 Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in
expansion device
 Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator

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3. Vapor Compression refrigeration System
(VCRS)
 The ordinary household refrigerator is a good example of
the application of this cycle.

Q L h h
COPR   1 4
W net ,in h2  h1
Q H h h
COPHP   2 3
W net ,in h2  h1
1ton
TOR  QL [ KJ / min]
1
211[ MJ / min]
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3. Vapor Compression refrigeration System
(VCRS)
Example 2-1
Refrigerant-134a is the working fluid in an ideal
compression refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant leaves
the evaporator at -20oC and has a condenser pressure of
0.9 MPa. The mass flow rate is 3 kg/min. Find COPR
and COPR, Carnot for the same Tmax and Tmin , and the tons
of refrigeration.
Given:

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3. Vapor Compression refrigeration System
(VCRS)
Example 2-1
Given:

Using the Refrigerant-134a Tables, we have:

State 2 
State1  kJ 
h  238.41 Compressor exit kJ
Compressor inlet  1 kg h2 s  278.23
 P2 s  P2  900 kPa  kg
T1  20o C  s  0.9456 kJ kJ T2 s  43.79 C
o

x1  1.0 
 
1
kg  K s2 s  s1  0.9456 
kg  K 

State 3  kJ State 4 
h  101.61  x  0.358
Condenser exit   3 kg Throttle exit  4
  kJ
P3  900 kPa   kJ T4  T1  20o C s4  0.4053
s3  0.3738 kg  K
x3  0.0   kg  K h4  h3  

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3. Vapor Compression refrigeration System
(VCRS)
Example 2-1

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
CARNOT CYCLE

o
o Limitations:
 - Liquid compression
 - damage compressor

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
Modification of Carnot cycle
 have two compressors – one isentropic and one
isothermal compressors.

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
Standard VCRS

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

By comparing with the Carnot cycle, the

standard VCRS introduces two
irreversibilities:
Irreversibility due to non-isothermal heat
rejection
Irreversibility due to isenthalpic throttling

As a result, the theoretical COP of standard

cycle to be smaller than that of a Carnot
system for the same heat source and sink
temperatures.

Due to these irreversibilities, the cooling

effect reduces and work input increases,
thus reducing the system COP.

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

 The heat extraction (evaporation) process is

reversible for both the Carnot cycle and VCRS
cycle.
 The refrigeration effect:

qe,carnot – qe,VCRS = A2
 there is a reduction in refrigeration effect when the
isentropic expansion process of Carnot cycle is
replaced by isenthalpic throttling process of VCRS
cycle, this reduction is equal to the area A2 and is
known as throttling loss.
 A practical consequence of this is a requirement of
higher refrigerant mass flow rate!!!

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle
increases when compared to Carnot cycle.

The isothermal heat rejection process of

Carnot cycle is replaced by isobaric heat
rejection in case of VCRS.
The increased heat rejection rate of VCRS
is given by:
qC,VCRS – qC,carnot = A1
This region is known as superheat horn
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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
 The net work input in case of Carnot and
VCRS cycles

Wnet, carnot = (qC – qe )carnot = Area 1-2”-3-4’

Wnet, VCRS = (qC – qe )VCRS= Area 1-2-3-4

Wnet, VCRS - Wnet, carnot = A1+A2

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

Superheat and throttling losses:

 The superheat loss increases only the work

input to the compressor, it does not effect
the refrigeration effect.

 The throttling loss increases the work

input and also reduces the refrigeration
effect.

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle
If it is assumed:
 If saturated liquid line coincides with the constant
pressure line Pc in the sub-cooled region
A2~A3
 The losses due to superheat (area A) and throttling
(area A2 ≈ A3) depend very much on the shape of the
vapor dome (saturation liquid and vapor curves) on T s
diagram.
 The shape of the saturation curves depends on the
nature of refrigerant.

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

Type 1: Ammonia, CO2 and Water

 These refrigerants have symmetrical
saturation curves (vapour dome), as a result
both the superheat and throttling losses
(areas A 1and A3) are significant.
 That means deviation of VCRS cycle from
Carnot cycle could be significant when
these refrigerants are used as working
fluids.
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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

Type 2
Refrigerants such as CFC11, CFC12,
HFC134a
 these refrigerants have small superheat
losses (area A1) but large throttling losses
(area A3).

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4. Comparison of S-VCRS with Carnot cycle

Type 3
High molecular weight refrigerants such as CFC113,
CFC114, CFC115, iso-butane
 Type 3, do not have any superheat losses, i.e., when the compression inlet
condition is saturated (point 1), then the exit condition will be in the 2-phase
region, as a result it is not necessary to superheat the refrigerant.
 However, these refrigerants experience significant throttling losses. Since the
compressor exit condition of Type 3 refrigerants may fall in the two-phase
region, there is a danger of wet compression leading to compressor damage.
Hence for these refrigerants, the compressor inlet condition is chosen such that
the exit condition does not fall in the two-phase region. This implies that the
refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor should be superheated, the extent of
which depends on the refrigerant.

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5. Analysis of S-VCRS
 A simple analysis of standard VCRS can
be carried out by assuming
a. Steady flow
b. negligible kinetic and potential energy
changes across each component
c. no heat transfer in connecting pipe lines.

 The steady flow energy equation is

applied to each of the four components.

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5. Analysis of S-VCRS
 Evaporator:

 Compressor:

 Condenser:

 Throttling device:

 The COP of the system:

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 Examples:
1. A Carnot refrigerator using R12 as working fluid operates
between 40ºC and -30ºC. Determine the work of compression
and cooling effect produced by the cycle.
2. A standard vapor compression system operates with R134a.
The temperature of refrigerant in the condenser and
evaporator are 40ºC and -20ºC respectively. The mass flow
rate of refrigerant is 0.1 kg/s. Determine the cooling capacity
and COP of the plant.
3. A R-12 plant has to produce 10tons of refrigeration. The
condenser and evaporator temperatures are 40ºC and -10ºC
respectively. Determine:
a. refrigerant flow rate
b. Volume flow rate of the compressor
c. Operating pressure ratio
d. Power required to drive the compressor
e. COP of the system
4. A vapor compression refrigeration system based on
refrigerant R134a operates between an evaporator
temperature of –25C and a condenser temperature of 50C.
find:
a. COP of the system
b. Work input to compressor
c. superheat horn and throttling loss

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 Modifications of VCRS
1. Introduce sub cooling and superheating

2. Use of liquid-suction heat exchanger

3. Multi-stage VCRS
1. Multi-Compression system
a. Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and
intercooling
b. Use of flash tank for flash gas removal only
c. Use of flash tank for intercooling only

2. Multi-Evaporator system
a. Individual evaporators and a single compressor
with a pressure-reducing valve
a. Individual expansion valves
b. Multiple expansion valves

b. Multi-evaporator system with multi-compression,

intercooling and flash gas removal
c. Multi-evaporator system with individual
compressors and multiple expansion valves

1. Cascade system

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
Sub-cooling
 In actual systems, the temperature of the
heat sink will be several degrees low than
the condensing temperature for heat
transfer.

 Hence, it is possible to cool the refrigerant

liquid to a few degrees lower than the
condensing temperature by adding extra
area for heat transfer.

 Then the exit condition of the condenser

will be in the sub-cooled liquid region.

 This process is know as sub-cooling.

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
Sub-cooling
 Without sub-cooling the throttling loss is
equal to the area b-4’-4-c.
 with sub-cooling the throttling loss is
given by the area a-4”-4’-b.
Sub-cooling increases the refrigeration effect
by reducing the throttling loss at no
additional specific work input.

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
Sub-cooling
A practical advantage of sub-cooling:

 Ensures that only liquid enters into the

throttling device leading to its efficient
operation.
 There is less vapor at the inlet to the
evaporator which leads to lower pressure
drop in the evaporator
A practical constraint of sub-cooling:
 Degree of sub-cooling depends on the extra area
provided for heat transfer and the temperature of the
heat sink.
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Superheating
 Temperature of the heat source will be a few degrees
higher than the evaporator temperature, hence the
vapor at the exit of the evaporator can be superheated.
 Hence, it is possible to heat the refrigerant to a few
degrees higher than the evaporator temperature by
adding extra area for heat transfer.
 Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration
effect as well as the work of compression.

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Superheating
 Useful superheating increases both the
refrigeration effect as well as the work of
compression.
 Hence the COP may or may not increase
with superheat, depending mainly upon the
nature of the working fluid.
 Even though useful superheating may or
may not increase the COP of the system, a
minimum amount of superheat is desirable
as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets
into the compressor.
 With superheating:
The refrigeration effect increases
Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor
increases
Work of compression increase.

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Superheating
 Whether the volumic refrigeration effect
(ratio of refrigeration effect by specific
volume at compressor inlet) and COP
increase or not depends upon the relative
increase in refrigeration effect and work of
compression, which in turn depends upon
the nature of the refrigerant used.
 The temperature of refrigerant at the exit
of the compressor increases with superheat
as the isentropes in the vapor region
gradually diverge.

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
2. Use of liquid-suction HX

 Required degree of sub-cooling and

superheating may not be possible, if one
were to rely only on heat transfer between
the refrigerant and external heat source and
sink.
 Also, if the temperature of refrigerant at
the exit of the evaporator is not sufficiently
superheated, then it may get superheated
by exchanging heat with the surroundings
as it flows through the connecting
pipelines (useless superheating), which is
detrimental to system performance.
 One way of achieving the required amount
of sub-cooling and superheating is by the
use of a liquid-suction heat exchanger
(LSHX).
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 Modifications of S-VCRS
2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 A LSHX is a counter flow heat exchanger
in which the warm refrigerant liquid from
the condenser exchanges heat with the
cool refrigerant vapor from the evaporator.

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 Since the temperature of the refrigerant
liquid at the exit of condenser is
considerably higher than the temperature
of refrigerant vapor at the exit of the
evaporator, it is possible to sub-cool the
refrigerant liquid and superheat the
refrigerant vapor by exchanging heat
between them.

 If we assume that there is no heat

exchange between the surroundings and
the LSHX and negligible kinetic and
potential energy changes across the
LSHX, then, the heat transferred between
the refrigerant liquid and vapor in the
LSHX, QLSHX is given by:

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2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 If we take average values of specific heats
for the vapor and liquid, then we can write
the above equation as;

 since the specific heat of liquid (cp,l) is

larger than that of vapor (cp,v), i.e., cp,l >
cp,l, we can write:

 This means that, the degree of sub-

cooling (T3-T4) will always be less than
the degree of superheating, (T1-T6).

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 If we define the effectiveness of the
LSHX, εLSHX as the ratio of actual heat
transfer rate in the LSHX to maximum
possible heat transfer rate, then:

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 Modifications of S-VCRS
2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 The maximum possible heat transfer rate
is equal to mrcP,v(T3-T6), because the vapor
has a lower thermal capacity, hence only it
can attain the maximum possible
temperature difference, which is equal to
(T3-T6).
 If we have a perfect LSHX with 100%
effectiveness (εLSHX = 1.0), then from the
above discussion it is clear that the
temperature of the refrigerant vapor at the
exit of LSHX will be equal to the
condensing temperature, Tc.
 This gives rise to the possibility of an
interesting cycle called as Grindley cycle.

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2. Use of liquid-suction HX
 Grindley cycle: States that the isentropic
compression process can be replaced by
an isothermal compression leading to
improved COP.

Isothermal comopressor
required less work input
thus higher COP for the
cycle!

 Though theoretically, the Grindley cycle

offers higher COP, achieving isothermal
compression with modern high-speed
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors
is difficult in practice.
 However, this may be possible with screw
compressor where the lubricating oil
provides large heat transfer rates.
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Example:
1. A vapor compression refrigeration system
based on refrigerant R-134a operates between
an evaporator temperature of –25C and a
condenser temperature of 50C. find:
a. COP of the system
b. Work input to compressor
c. Superheat horn and throttling loss
Given:
Refrigerant: R-134a
Tc=50C
Te=-25C

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Example:

Analysis:

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Example:
a) COP = (h1-h4)/(h2-h1) = 2.1174
b) Work input to compressor:
Wc = (h2-h1) = 52.8 kJ/kg
c) Superheat horn area, area A1:
Area A1 = Area under 2-2’ − Area under 2”-2’
Area under 2-2’: ∫Tds = ∫(dh-vdP) = ∫dh = h2-h2’( dp = 0)
⇒ Area under 2-2’ = h2-h2’ = 12.8 kJ/kg
Area under 2”-2’ = ∫Tds = Tc (s2”-s2’) = 12.6 kJ/kg
⇒ Superheat horn area = Area A1
= (12.8 – 12.6) = 0.2 kJ/kg
d) Throttling loss, Area A2:
Area A2= Area under 3-1’−Area under 4’-1’
= (h3−h1’) – Te(s3-s1’)
Throttling area = (271.6−167.2) –
248.15(1.237−0.8746)
= 14.47 kJ/kg
Alternatively:
Throttling area = Area under 4-4’
= Te(s4-s4’) = 248.15(1.295–1.237) = 14.4 kJ/kg
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 Example:
2. In a R22 based refrigeration system, a
liquid-to-suction heat exchanger (LSHX)
with an effectiveness of 0.65 is used. The
evaporating and condensing temperatures
are 7.2oC and 54.4oC respectively.
Assuming the compression process to be
isentropic, find:

a) Specific refrigeration effect

b) Volumic refrigeration effect
c) Specific work of compression
d) COP of the system
e) Temperature of vapor at the exit of the
compressor
f) Comment on the use of LSHX by comparing
the performance of the system with a
standard cycle operating between the same
evaporator and condensing temperatures.

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 Example:
Given:
Refrigerant : R 22
Te = 7.2oC
Tc = 54.4oC
Effectiveness of LSHX,εX = 0.65

Analysis:

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 Example:
Analysis:

Effectiveness of LSHX, εX = (Qact/Qmax)

= [(mCp)minΔTact,min]/ [(mCp)minΔTmax ]
= (T2-T1)/(T4-T1)
=(T2-T1)/(T4-T1) = 0.65
⇒ T2 = T1+0.65(T4-T1) = 37.88oC
From energy balance across LSHX:
(h2-h1) = (h4-h5) ⇒ h5 = h4– (h2-h1)
5 Vapor compression refrigeration
6 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Example:
 From the above data and using refrigerant property
values for R 22 at various state points are:

With LSHX:
a) Refrigeration effect = (h1-h6) = 161.2 kJ/kg
b) Volumic refrigeration effect = (h1-h6)/v2 = 3676.2 kJ/m3
c) Work of compression = (h3-h2) = 36.1 kJ/kg
d) COP = (h1-h6)/(h3-h2) = 4.465
e) Temperature at compressor exit (from Pc and s3=s2) = 104.9oC

5 Vapor compression refrigeration

7 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Example:
Without LSHX:
A) Refrigeration effect = (h1-h6’) = 138.1 kJ/kg
B) Volumic refrigeration effect = (h1-h6’)/v1= 3660.2 kJ/m3
C) Work of compression = (h3’-h1) = 31.0 kJ/kg
D) COP = (h1-h6’)/ (h3’-h1) = 4.455
E) Temperature at compressor exit (from Pc and s1=s3’) = 74.23oC

Comments:
a. There is no appreciable change in COP with the addition of
LSHX
b. Quality of refrigerant at evaporator inlet is significantly lower
with LSHX
c. Discharge temperature is significantly high with LSHX
d. For refrigerant R-22, use of LSHX does not improve the
performance of the system significantly, however, the evaporator
with LSHX performs better due to the lower vapor fraction at its
inlet
5 Vapor compression refrigeration
8 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Part III

Vapor compression refrigeration

59 system Monday, March 29, 2
021
 3. Multi-stage VCRS

 A single stage VCRS has one low-side pressure

(Pe) and one high-side pressure (Pc).
 The performance of single stage systems shows
that the system are adequate as long as the
temperature difference between the evaporator
and condeser (called Temperature lift) is small.
 However, there are many applications where
the temperature lift can be quite high. The
temperature lift can become large either due to
the requirement of very low evaporator
temperatures and/or due to the requirement of
very high condensing temperatures.
 Examples of high temperature lift:
1. Low evaporator temperature requirement
 In frozen food industries the required
evaporator can be as low as –40oC,
 In chemical industries temperatures as low as
–150oC may be required for liquefaction of
gases.
60 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
 2. High condenser temperature requirement
 The required condensing temperatures
can be very high if the refrigeration
system is used as a heat pump for heating
applications such as process heating,
drying etc.

 As the temperature lift increases the single

stage systems become inefficient and
impractical.

Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle performance

6 Vapor compression refrigeration
1 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 It can be seen from the T-s diagram that
for a given condenser temperature, as
evaporator temperature decreases:
I. Throttling losses increase
II. Superheat losses increase
III. Compressor discharge temperature
increases
IV. Quality of the vapor at the inlet to the
evaporator increases
V. Specific volume at the inlet to the
compressor increases
 As a result of this:
 The refrigeration effect decreases and
 The volumic refrigeration effect also
decreases rapidly as the specific volume
increases with decreasing evaporator
temperature.
 Work of compression increases

62 Vapor compression refrigeration

system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Similar effects will occur when the
condenser temperature increases for a given
evaporator temperature.

 Due to these drawbacks, single stage

systems are not recommended when the
evaporator temperature becomes very low
and/or when the condenser temperature
becomes very high.

 In such cases multi-stage systems are used

in practice.

 Generally, for fluorocarbon and ammonia

based refrigeration systems:
 A single stage system is used up to an
evaporator temperature of –30oC.
 A two-stage system is used up to –60oC
 A three-stage system is used for temperatures
below –60oC.
6 Vapor compression refrigeration
3 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-stage systems are also used in
applications requiring refrigeration at
different temperatures.
Example:
A dairy plant refrigeration may be required at –
30oC for making ice cream and at 2oC for
chilling milk.
In such cases it may be advantageous to use a
multi-evaporator system with the low
temperature evaporator operating at –30oC and
the high temperature evaporator operating at
2oC

 A multi-stage system is a refrigeration

system with two or more low-side pressures.
 Multi-stage systems can be classified into:
a) Multi-compression systems
b) Multi-evaporator systems
c) Cascade systems
6 Vapor compression refrigeration
4 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Two concepts which are normally integral
to multi-pressure systems are:
I. Flash gas removal, and
II. Inter-cooling.

I. Flash gas removal using flash tank

 One of the problems with high temperature lift
applications is the high quality of vapor at the
inlet to the evaporator.
 This vapor called as flash gas develops during
the throttling process.
 The flash gas has to be compressed to
condenser pressure, it does not contribute to the
refrigeration effect as it is already in the form of
vapor, and it increases the pressure drop in the
evaporator.
 It is possible to improve the COP of the system
if the flash gas is removed as soon as it is
formed and recompressed to condenser
pressure.
65 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
 One way of improving the performance of
the system is to remove the flash gas at an
intermediate pressure using a flash tank.
 A flash tank is a pressure vessel, wherein
the refrigerant liquid and vapor are
separated at an intermediate pressure.

66 Vapor compression refrigeration

system Monday, March 29, 2021
 The refrigerant from condenser is first
expanded to an intermediate pressure
corresponding to the pressure of flash tank,
Pi using a low side float valve (process 6-7).

 In the flash tank, the refrigerant liquid and

vapor are separated.

 The saturated liquid at point 8 is fed to the

evaporator after throttling it to the required
evaporator pressure, Pe (point 9) using an
expansion valve.

 In the absence of flash tank, the refrigerant

condition at the inlet to the evaporator
would have been point 9’, which has a
considerably high vapor quality compared
to point 9.
6 Vapor compression refrigeration
7 system Monday, March 29, 2021
II. Intercooling
 From compressor process, it can be seen
that specific work input can be reduced if
specific volume, v1 is reduced.
 At a given pressure, the specific volume can
be reduced by reducing the temperature.
This is the principle behind intercooling in
multi-stage compression.

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8 system Monday, March 29, 2021
As shown in the figures, instead of
compressing the vapor in a single stage
from state 1 to state 2’, if the refrigerant is
compressed from state 1 to an intermediate
pressure, state 2, intercooled from 2 to 3
and then compressed to the required
pressure (state 4), reduction in work input
results.

 If the processes are reversible, then the

savings in specific work is given by the
shaded area 2-3-4-2’ on P-v diagram.

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9 system Monday, March 29, 2021
Intercooling of the vapor may be achieved
by using :
o A water-cooled heat exchanger
o the refrigerant in the flash tank.

1. A water-cooled heat exchanger

Intercooling may not be always possible

using water-cooled heat exchangers as it
depends on the availability of sufficiently
cold water to which the refrigerant from
low stage compressor can reject heat.

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0 system Monday, March 29, 2021
Moreover, with water cooling the
refrigerant at the inlet to the high stage
compressor may not be saturated.

Intercooling:
Reduces the work input .
Reduces the compressor discharge
temperature leading to better lubrication
and longer compressor life.

71 Vapor compression refrigeration

system Monday, March 29, 2021
2. By the refrigerant in the flash tank.

Intercooling using liquid refrigerant from

condenser in the flash tank may or may not
reduce the power input to the system, as it
depends upon the nature of the refrigerant.

7 Vapor compression refrigeration

2 system Monday, March 29, 2021
This is due to the fact that the heat rejected
by the refrigerant during intercooling
generates additional vapor in the flash tank,
which has to be compressed by the high
stage compressor. Thus the mass flow rate
of refrigerant through the high stage
compressor will be more than that of the
low stage compressor.

Whether total power input to the system

decreases or not depends on whether the
increased power consumption due to higher
mass flow rate is compensated by reduction
in specific work of compression or not.
73 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
For ammonia, the power input usually
decreases with intercooling by liquid
refrigerant, however, for refrigerants such
as R12, R22, the power input marginally
increases. Thus intercooling using liquid
refrigerant is not effective for R12 and R22.

However, one benefit of intercooling is the

reduction in compressor discharge
temperature, which leads to better
compressor lubrication and its longer life.

74 Vapor compression refrigeration

system Monday, March 29, 2021
It is also possible to intercool the refrigerant
vapor by a combination of water-cooled
heat exchanger and the refrigerant liquid in
the flash tank.

As a result of using both water-cooling and

flash-tank, the amount of refrigerant vapor
handled by the high-stage compressor
reduces leading to lower power
consumption.

However, the possibility of this again

depends on the availability of cooling
water at required temperature.
75 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
Multi-stage compression optimum Pi
One of the design issues in multi-stage
compression is the selection of suitable
intermediate pressure.
For air compressors with intercooling to the
initial temperature, the theoretical work
input to the system will be minimum when
the pressure ratios are equal for all stages.
This also results in equal compressor
discharge temperatures for all compressors.
Thus for a two-stage air compressor with
intercooling, the optimum intermediate
pressure, Pi,opt is:

• Where Plow and Phigh are the inlet pressure to the

low-stage compressor and exit pressure from
the high-stage compressor, respectively.

76 Vapor compression refrigeration

system Monday, March 29, 2021
This relation is found to hold good for
ideal gases.
For refrigerants, correction factors to the
above equation are suggested, for
example one such relation for
refrigerants is given by:

Where Pe and Pc are the evaporator and condenser

pressures, and Tc and Te are condenser and
evaporator temperatures (in K).

Several combinations of Multi-stage

Compression system
1. Multi-stage system with flash gas removal
and intercooling
2. Use of flash tank for flash gas removal only
3. Use of flash tank for intercooling only

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7 system Monday, March 29, 2021
1. Multi-stage system with flash gas
removal and inter-cooling

7 Vapor compression refrigeration

8 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 The superheated vapor from the water
cooled heat exchanger bubbles through the
refrigerant liquid in the flash tank. It is
assumed that in this process the
superheated refrigerant vapour gets
completely de-superheated and emerges
out as a saturated vapor at state 4.
However, in practice complete de-
superheating may not be possible.

 The performance of this system can be

obtained easily by applying mass and
energy balance equations to the individual
components.

 Assumption:
 The flash tank is perfectly insulated and the
potential and kinetic energy changes of
refrigerant across each component are
negligible.
79 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
From mass and energy
balance of the flash tank:

From mass and energy balance across

expansion valve:

From mass and energy

balance across evaporator:

From mass and energy balance across low-

stage compressor, Compressor-I:

Where mI is the mass flow rate of refrigerant through

Compressor-I.
80 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
From mass and energy
balance across
water-cooled intercooler:

where QI is the heat transferred by the

refrigerant to the cooling water in the
intercooler.
From mass and energy balance across high-
stage compressor, Compressor-II:

Where MII is the mass flow rate of refrigerant through

Compressor-II.
Finally, from mass and energy balance
across condenser:

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

1 system Monday, March 29, 2021
Finally, from mass and energy balance
across the float valve:

From the above set of equations, it can be

easily shown that for the flash tank:

It can be seen from the above expression

that the refrigerant flow through the high-
stage compression can be reduced by
reducing the enthalpy of refrigerant vapor
entering into the flash tank, h3 from the
water-cooled intercooler.
The amount of additional vapor generated
due to de-superheating of the refrigerant
vapor from the water-cooled intercooler is
given by:
82 Vapor compression refrigeration
system Monday, March 29, 2021
The vapor generated mgen will be zero, if the
refrigerant vapor is completely de-superheated
in the water-cooled intercooler itself. However,
this may not be possible in practice.
The system COP is given by:

The above system offers several advantages,

a. Quality of refrigerant entering the evaporator
reduces thus giving rise to higher refrigerating
effect, lower pressure drop and better heat
transfer in the evaporator
b. Throttling losses are reduced as vapor generated
during throttling from Pc to Pi is separated in the
flash tank and recompressed by Compressor-II.
c. Volumetric efficiency of compressors will be
high due to reduced pressure ratios.
d. Compressor discharge temperature is reduced
considerably.
8 Vapor compression refrigeration
3 system Monday, March 29, 2021
2. Use of flash tank for flash gas removal
only

Intercooling of refrigerant vapor using

water-cooled heat exchangers is possible in
ammonia systems due to high discharge
temperature of ammonia.
However, this is generally not possible in
systems using refrigerants such as R12 or
R134a due to their low discharge
temperatures.
In these systems, in stead of passing the
refrigerant vapor from the low-stage
compressor through the flash tank, vapor
from the flash tank is mixed with the vapor
coming from the low-stage compressor.
As a result, the inlet condition to the high-
stage compressor will be slightly
superheated.
8 Vapor compression refrigeration
4 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 A two-stage compression system with flash tank
for flash gas removal for refrigerants

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

5 system Monday, March 29, 2021
3. Use of flash tank for intercooling only
 Sometimes the flash tank is used for intercooling of the
refrigerant vapor between the low and high-stage
compressors. It is not used for flash gas removal.

Fig: A two-stage compression system with the flash

tank used for intercooling only

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

6 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Examples
1. The required refrigeration capacity of a vapour
compression refrigeration system (with R-22 as
refrigerant) is 100kW at –30oC evaporator temperature.
Initially the system was single-stage with a single
compressor compressing the refrigerant vapor from
evaporator to a condenser operating at 1500kPa
pressure.
Later the system was modified to a two-stage system
operating on the cycle shown below. At the
intermediate pressure of 600kPa there is intercooling
but no removal of flash gas. Find:
a. Power requirement of the original single-stage
system;
b. Total power requirement of the two compressors
in the revised two-stage system.
Assume that the state of refrigerant at the exit of
evaporator, condenser and intercooler is saturated,
and the compression processes are isentropic.

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

7 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Examples
ANALYSIS:
1. Single stage system:

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

8 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Examples
2. Two-stage system with flash tank for intercooling
only:

8 Vapor compression refrigeration

9 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Examples
 From refrigerant property data, the following values are
obtained for R22:

a) Single stage system:

Required refrigerant mass flow rate, mr is given by:
mr = Qe/(h1−h4)=100/(392.7−248.4)=0.693kg/s

Power input to compressor, Wc is given by:

Wc = mr(h2− h1) = 0.693(449.9 − 392.7) = 39.64kW

COP of the single stage system is given by:

COP = Qe/Wc = 100/39.64 = 2.523

Compressor discharge temperature:

T2= 76.93 oC (from property data)

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 Examples
b) Multi-stage system:
Required refrigerant mass flow rate through evaporator
and 1ststage compressor (mr,1) is same as that of single
stage system:
mr = 0.693 kg/s

Power input to the 1st stage compressor, Wc,1:

Wc,1 =mr(h2’−h1)=0.693(424.4−392.7)=21.97kW

The mass flow rate of refrigerant vapor through 2nd stage

compressor (mr,2) is obtained from energy balance across
intercooler:
mr,2.h2” = mr,1.h2’+ (mr,2− mr,1).h4’
Substituting the values of enthalpy and mass flow rate
through 1st stage compressor:
mr,2= 0.768 kg/s
Power input to 2nd stage compressor,Wc,2 is given by:
Wc,2 =mr,2(h2’”−h2”)=0.768(429.6−407.2)=17.2kW
Therefore, total power input, Wc is given by:
Wc = Wc,1+Wc,2 = 21.97+17.2=39.17kW
COP of the two stage system is given by:
COP = Qe/Wc = 100/39.17 = 2.553
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
1 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Examples
a) Multi-stage system:
 From property data, the discharge temperatures at the
exit of 1 stand 2nd stage compressors are given,
respectively by:
T2’ = 28.94oC
T2’” = 53.55oC

Comments:
It is observed from the above example that
for the given input data:
a. the use of a two-stage system with intercooling in
place of a single stage system does not increase the
COP significantly (≈ 1.2 %).
b. there is a significant reduction in the maximum
compressor discharge temperature (≈ 24oC).
c. The results would be different if the operating
conditions and/or the refrigerant used is different.

9 Vapor compression refrigeration

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 Multi-Evaporator system
 There are many applications where refrigeration is
required at different temperatures.
For example:
a typical food processing plant, cold air may be
required at –30oC for freezing and at +7oC for cooling
of food products or space cooling.
1. One simple alternative is to use different
refrigeration systems to cater to these different
loads. However, this may not be economically
viable due to the high total initial cost.

2. Another alternative is to use a single

refrigeration system with one compressor and
two evaporators both operating at −30oC. The
system consists of a single compressor and a
single condenser but two evaporators. Both
evaporators-I and II operate at same evaporator
temperature (-30oC). It can be seen that
operating the evaporator at –30oC when
refrigeration is required at +7oC is
thermodynamically inefficient.

3. The best option would be to use multi-stage

systems with multiple evaporators.
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
3 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Several multi-evaporator combinations
are possible in practice. Some of the
most common ones are discussed
below.

1. Individual evaporators and a single

compressor with a pressure-reducing
valve
 Individual expansion valves
 Multiple expansion valves

2. Multi-evaporator system with multi-

compression, intercooling and flash gas
removal

3. Multi-evaporator system with

individual compressors and multiple
expansion valves
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
4 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system
1. Individual evaporators and a single
compressor with a pressure-reducing
valve
1.1. Individual expansion valves

 The above multi-evaporator system uses two evaporators

at two different temperatures and a single compressor.
 This system also uses individual expansion valves and a
pressure regulating valve (PRV) for reducing the
pressure from that corresponding to the high temperature
evaporator to the compressor suction pressure. The PRV
also maintains the required pressure in high temperature
evaporator (Evaporator-II).
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
5 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system

 The COP of the above system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow rates

through evaporator I and II respectively. They are given
by:

Enthalpy at point 1 (inlet to compressor) is obtained by

applying mass and energy balance to the mixing of two
refrigerant streams, i.e.,

 If the expansion across PRV is isenthalpic, then specific

enthalpy h8 will be equal to h6.
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
6 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system
1.2. Multiple expansion valves

 The above system shows a multi-evaporator with a

single compressor and multiple expansion valves.
 It can be seen from the P-h diagram that the
advantage of this system compared to the system
with individual expansion valves is:
 that the refrigeration effect of the low temperature
evaporator increases as saturated liquid enters the low
stage expansion valve. Since the flash gas is removed
at state 4, the low temperature evaporator operates
more efficiently.

9 Vapor compression refrigeration

7 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system
1.2. Multiple expansion valves

 The COP of this system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow rates

through evaporator I and II respectively. They are given by:

 Enthalpy at point 1 (inlet to compressor) is obtained by

applying mass and energy balance to the mixing of two
refrigerant streams, i.e.,

 If the expansion across PRV is isenthalpic, then specific enthalpy h 7 will

be equal to h9.
9 Vapor compression refrigeration
8 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system
2. Multi-evaporator system with multi-
compression, intercooling and flash gas
removal

9 Vapor compression refrigeration

9 system Monday, March 29, 2021
 Multi-Evaporator system
2. Multi-evaporator system with multi-
compression, intercooling and flash gas
removal
 The figure shows a multi-evaporator system which
employs multiple compressors, a flash tank for flash
gas removal and intercooling.
 This system is good for low temperature lift
applications with different refrigeration loads. For
example one evaporator operating at –40oC and other
evaporator operating at –25oC.
 As shown in the system schematic, the pressure in the
high temperature evaporator (Evaporator-II) is same as
that of flash tank.
 Superheated vapor from the low-stage compressor is
cooled to the saturation temperature in the flash tank.
The low temperature evaporator operates efficiently as
flash gas is removed in the flash tank
 the high-stage compressor (Compressor-II) operates
efficiently as the suction vapor is saturated.

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0
 Multi-Evaporator system
2. Multi-evaporator system with multi-
compression, intercooling and flash gas
removal
 The COP of this system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow rates

through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:

MII is the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the

high-stage compressor which can be obtained by taking
a control volume which includes the flash tank and
high temperature evaporator (as shown by dashed line
in the schematic) and applying mass and energy
balance:
From known operating
 mass balance: temperatures and
evaporator loads (Qe,I and
Qe,II) one can get the mass
 energy balance: flow rate through the high
stage compressor and
system COP from the above
1 Vapor compression refrigeration equations.
0 system Monday, March 29, 2021
1
 Multi-Evaporator system
3. Multi-evaporator system with individual
compression and multiple expansion
valves.
 The Figures shows a system with a multi-
evaporator system which employs individual
compressors and multiple expansion valves.

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

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2
 Multi-Evaporator system
3. Multi-evaporator system with individual
compression and multiple expansion
valves.

 The COP of this combined system is given by:

where mI and mII are the refrigerant mass flow rates

through evaporator I and II respectively. They are
given by:

The inlet to the condenser (state 5) is obtained by

applying mass and energy balance to the process of
mixing of refrigerant vapors from Compressors I and
II.
1 Vapor compression refrigeration
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3
 Multi-Evaporator system
Limitations of Multi-stage systems
 Though multi-stage systems have been
very successful, they have certain
limitations. These are:
a. Only one refrigerant is used throughout the
system.
b. The operating pressures with a single
refrigerant may become too high or too
low. Generally only R12, R22 and NH3
systems have been used in multi-stage
systems.
c. Possibility of migration of lubricating oil
from one compressor to other leading to
compressor break-down.

 The above limitations can be overcome by

using cascade systems.

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

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4
Modifications of VCRS:

1. Introduce sub cooling and superheating

2. Use of liquid-suction heat exchanger

3. Multi-stage VCRS

1. Multi-Compression system
a. Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and
intercooling
b. Use of flash tank for flash gas removal only
c. Use of flash tank for intercooling only

2. Multi-Evaporator system

3. Cascade system

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

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5
 Cascade system
 In a cascade system a series of refrigerants with
progressively lower boiling points are used in a series
of single stage units.
 The condenser of lower stage system is coupled to the
evaporator of the next higher stage system and so on.
 The component where heat of condensation of lower
stage refrigerant is supplied for vaporization of next
level refrigerant is called as Cascade
condenser.
 The Figures shows the schematic of a two-stage
cascade refrigeration system.

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6
 Cascade system
 As shown, this system employs two different
refrigerants operating in two individual cycles.
 The cycles are thermally coupled in the cascade
condenser.
 The refrigerants selected should have suitable
pressure-temperature characteristics.
 An example of refrigerant combination is the use of
carbon dioxide in low temperature cascade and
ammonia in high temperature cascade.
 It is possible to use more than two cascade stages,
and it is also possible to combine multi-stage
systems with cascade systems.

Advantages of cascade systems:

I. Since each cascade uses a different refrigerant,
it is possible to select a refrigerant that is best
suited for that particular temperature range.
Therefore, Very high or very low pressures can
be avoided
II. Migration of lubricating oil from one
compressor to the other is prevented

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

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7
 Examples
1. The refrigeration system shown below (with iindividual
evaporators, a single compressor with a pressure-
reducing valve and individual expansion valves ) has a
refrigeration effect at +6C and -30C, with ammonia at a
flow rate of 0.2kg/s through each of evaporators. Assume
saturated states at the each evaporator exits and
isentropic expansion in the pressure regulating valve
(PRV). The condensor has saturation tempearture of
+30C. Determine:
a. Inlet temperature and enthalpy of the compressor.
b. The COP of the system
c. If the system is modified to multiple expansion devices ( as
shown in fig 2) determine the COP of the cycle.

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

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 Examples
1. An ammonia refrigeration system with subcooler, flash
chamber for flash gas removing and intercooling has a
pressure limits of 14 bar and 2bar. The subcooling and
intercooling is limited to 30C while the flash tank works
at 5bar. With compressor mechanical efficiency of 80%,
the required refrigeration effect os 10TR. Determine:
a. Inlet temperature and enthalpy of the compressor.
b. The COP of the system

1 Vapor compression refrigeration

0 system Monday, March 29, 2021
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