SOIL MECHANICS

Soil mechanics is a scientific field of the civil engineering discipline that studies the
mechanical behavior of soil. Soil mechanics is critical in civil engineering as it describes
the principles that govern the way civil infrastructure projects such as buildings,
bridges, tanks, embankments, dams, and tunnels, are supported by the soil.
Soil mechanics differs from classical fluid mechanics or solid mechanics as the soil is (a)
a heterogeneous mixture of solid particles (gravel, rock, sand, silt, and clay), liquid,
and gas (three-phase system), and (b) is a particulate material.  Understanding and
predicting soil’s behavior is complex as it is stress-dependent and nonlinear.
To derive soil’s mechanical properties, in-situ and laboratory testing are performed and
analytical solutions or constitutive models are used to simulate its behavior.
In general, the purpose of using soil mechanics varies depending on the project, but
broadly it aims to ensure soil’s stability and limit deformation while controlling
groundwater flow. 
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PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Soil Formation
Soil is a three-phase material consisting of solid particles, water, and air. Its mechanical
behavior is largely dependent on the size of its solid particles and voids. The solid
particles are formed from physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Therefore, it is
important to have some understanding of the nature of rocks and their formation.
A rock is made up of one or more minerals. The characteristics of a particular rock
depend on the minerals it contains. This raises the question: What is a mineral? By
definition, a mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound in a solid
state. More than 4000 different minerals have been discovered but only 10 elements
make up 99% of Earth’s crust (the outer layer of Earth): oxygen (O), silicon (Si),
aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg),
titanium (Ti), and hydrogen (H). Most of the minerals (74%) in Earth’s crust contain
oxygen and silicon. The silicate minerals, containing oxygen and silicon, comprise 90% of
all rock-forming minerals. One of the interesting minerals in soil mechanics is the clay
mineral montmorillonite (an expansive clay),
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which can expand up to 15 times its original volume if water is present. When
expanding, it can produce pressures high enough to damage building foundations
and other structures.
Since its formation, Earth has been subjected to continuous changes caused by
seismic, volcanic, and climatic activities. Moving from the surface to the center
of Earth, a distance of approximately 6370 km, we encounter three different
layers. The top (outer) layer, the crust, has an average thickness of 15 km and an
average density of 3000 kg/m3. By comparison, the density of water is 1000
kg/m3 and that of iron is 7900 kg/m3. The second layer, the mantle, has an
average thickness of 3000 km and an average density of 5000 kg/m 3. The third,
the core, contains primarily nickel and iron and has an average density of 11,000
kg/m3. Within the crust, there are three major groups of rocks:
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 Igneous rocks, which are formed by the cooling of magma. Fast cooling occurs above
the surface, producing igneous rocks such as basalt, whereas slow cooling occurs
below the surface, producing other types of igneous rocks, such as granite and
dolerite. These rocks are the ancestors of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks, which are made up of particles and fragments derived from
disintegrated rocks that are subjected to pressure and cementation caused by
calcite and silica. Limestone (chalk) is a familiar example of a sedimentary rock.
 Metamorphic rocks, which are the product of existing rocks subjected to changes in
pressure and temperature, causing changes in mineral composition of the original
rocks. Marble, slate, and schist are examples of metamorphic rocks.
Note that about 95% of the outer 10 km of Earth’s crust is made up of igneous and
metamorphic rocks, and only 5% is sedimentary. But the exposed surface of the crust
contains at least 75% sedimentary rocks.
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Soils: Soils are the product of physical and chemical weathering of rocks.
Physical weathering includes climatic effects such as freeze–thaw cycles and
erosion by wind, water, and ice. Chemical weathering includes chemical reaction
with rainwater. The particle size and the distribution of various particle sizes of
a soil depend on the weathering agent and the transportation agent.
Soils are categorized as gravel, sand, silt, or clay, depending on the predominant
particle size involved. Gravels are small pieces of rocks. Sands are small particles
of quartz and feldspar. Silts are microscopic soil fractions consisting of very fine
quartz grains. Clays are flake-shaped microscopic particles of mica, clay
minerals, and other minerals. The average size (diameter) of solid particles
ranges from 4.75 to 76.2 mm for gravels and from 0.075 to 4.75 mm for sands.
Soils with an average particle size of less than 0.075 mm are either silt or clay or
a combination of the two.
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Soils can also be described based on the way they were deposited. If a soil is
deposited in the vicinity of the original rocks due to gravity alone, it is called a
residual soil. If a soil is deposited elsewhere away from the original rocks due to a
transportation agent (such as wind, ice, or water), it is called a transported soil.
Soils can be divided into two major categories: cohesion less and cohesive. Cohesion
less soils, such as gravelly, sandy, and silty soils, have particles that do not adhere
(stick) together even with the presence of water. On the other hand, cohesive soils
(clays) are characterized by their very small flake like particles, which can attract
water and form plastic matter by adhering (sticking) to each other.
Note that where as you can make shapes out of wet clay (but not too wet) because
of its cohesive characteristics, it is not possible to do so with a cohesion less soil
such as sand.
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PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS

oils contain three components: solid, liquid, and gas. The solid components of soils are
the product of weathered rocks. The liquid component is usually water, and the gas
component is usually air. The gaps between the solid particles are called voids. As
shown in Figure 1.1a, the voids may contain air, water, or both. Let us discuss the soil
specimen shown in Figure 1.1a. The total volume (V) and the total weight (W) of the
specimen can be measured in the laboratory. Next, let us separate the three
components of the soil as shown in Figure 1.1b. The solid particles are gathered in one
region such that there are no voids in between, as shown in the figure (this can only be
done theoretically). The volume of this component is V s and its weight is Ws. The second
component is water, whose volume is Vw and whose weight is Ww. The third component
is the air, which has a volume Va and a very small weight that can be assumed to be
zero. Note that the volume of voids (Vv) is the sum of Va and Vw. Therefore, the total
volume is V = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs. Also, the total weight W = Ww + Ws.
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In the following we present definitions of several basic soil parameters that hold
important physical meanings. These basic parameters will be used to obtain
relationships that are useful in soil mechanics.
The void ratio e is the proportion of the volume of voids with respect to the
volume of solids:
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γd = Equation (1.17) is useful for estimating the void ratio of saturated soils based
on their moisture content. For a saturated soil S = 1 and the value of Gs be
assumed (2.65 for sands and 2.75 for clays). The moisture content can be
obtained from a simple laboratory test (described earlier) performed on a soil
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Relative Density
The compressibility and strength of a granular soil are related to its relative
density Dr, which is a measure of the compactness of the soil grains (their
closeness to each other). Consider a uniform sand layer that has an in situ void
ratio e. It is possible to tell how dense this sand is if we compare it’s in situ void
ratio with the maximum and minimum possible void ratios of the same sand. To
do so, we can obtain a sand sample from the sand layer and perform two
laboratory tests (ASTM 2004: Test Designation D-4253). The first laboratory test is
carried out to estimate the maximum possible dry unit weight γ d−max (which
corresponds to the minimum possible void ratio emin) by placing a dry sand
specimen in a container with a known volume and subjecting the specimen to a
surcharge pressure accompanied with vibration. The second laboratory test is
performed to estimate the minimum possible dry unit weight γ d−min (which
corresponds to the maximum possible void ratio emax) by pouring a dry sand
specimen very loosely in a container with a known volume.
Now, let us define the relative density as
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The equation allows us to compare the in situ void ratio directly with the
maximum and minimum void ratios of the same granular soil. When the in situ
void ratio e of this granular soil is equal to emin, the soil is at its densest possible
condition and Dr is equal to 1 (or Dr = 100%). When e is equal to emax, the soil is at
its loosest possible condition, and its Dr is equal to 0 (or Dr = 0%).
Note that the dry unit weight is related to the void ratio through the equation
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Mechanical Properties of Soil
Soil engineers usually classify soils to determine whether they are suitable for
particular applications. Let us consider three borrow sites from which we need to
select a soil that has the best compaction characteristics for a nearby highway
embankment construction project. For that we would need to get details about
the grain-size distribution and the consistency of each soil. Then we can use
available charts and tables that will give us the exact type of each soil. From
experience and/or from available charts and tables we can determine which of
these soils has the best compaction characteristics based on its classification.
Most soil classification systems are based on the grain-size distribution curve and
the Atterberg limits for a given soil. The grain-size analysis is done using sieve
analysis on the coarse portion of the soil (> 0.075 mm in diameter), and using
hydrometer analysis on the fine portion of the soil (< 0.075 mm in diameter). The
consistency of soil is characterized by its Atterberg limits as described below.
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Sieve Analysis
A set of standardized sieves is used for the analysis. Each sieve is 200 mm in
diameter and 50 mm in height. The opening size of the sieves ranges from 0.075
mm for sieve No. 200 to 4.75 mm for sieve No. 4. Table 1.1 lists the designation
of each sieve and the corresponding opening size. As shown in Figure 1.2, a set of
sieves stacked in descending order (the sieve with the largest opening size is on
top) is secured on top of a standardized shake table. A dry soil specimen is then
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soil) that includes a wide spectrum of particle sizes. In this case the soil is well
proportioned—it includes gravel, sand (coarse, medium, and fine), and silt/clay.
There are two use full indicators, Cu and Cc, that can be obtained from the grain-
size distribution curve. Cu is the uniformity coefficient, defined as Cu = d60/d10,
and Cc is the coefficient of gradation, defined as. Here d10, d30, and d60 are the
grain diameters corresponding respectively to 10%, 30%, and 60% passing, as
shown in Figure 1.3. For a well-graded sand, the value of the coefficient of
gradation should be in the range 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3. Also, higher values of the uniformity
coefficient indicate that the soil contains a wider range of particle sizes.