Wireless and Mobile Communication
Lecture 1
Wireless Fundamentals
Shibli Nisar
NU-FAST
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Course Division
1. Fundamentals
History & Evolution of wireless systems, various impairments in wireless channels. Multi-path
signal propagation, Fading and its types, Doppler Effect, Error compensation mechanisms in
wireless channels
FDMA-TDD/FDD, TDMA-FDD/TDD and CDMA-FDD/TDD Systems.
Equalization
2. Wireless Data Networks
Data networks, IEEE 802.11 WLANS their design and operation, Random Access Methods.
Mobile IP.
WLLs: MMDS/LMDS, Wi-MAX
Bluetooth
3. Cellular System
Cellular Fundamentals: Cellular systems, cellular operations, Handoffs & Cluster size
Relationship between C/I and Cluster Size, Derivation of expressions to link the Re-Use ratio
(D/R) to the Cluster Size (N) , Power control, cellular hierarchy, AMPS and AMPS architecture,
Call establishment and control
Frequency planning & re-use, Radio Propagation effects, Adjecent Interference, Cell splitting
Tele traffic engineering
GSM: architecture, entities, channels, signal processing, handoff, call control, roaming, security
CDMA
GPRS
4. Overview of Cutting-edge Technologies: 3G and Beyond
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Recommended Books
David Parsons, The Mobile Radio Propagation
Channel, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons; ISBN:
047198857
T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, 2nd
Edition, 2002, Pearson Education; ISBN: 81-7808-648-
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Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, 4th
edition, May 2000, John Wiley & Sons; ISBN:
0471178691
Lecture Notes
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Tentative Grading
Assignments = 5%
Quizzes = 10%
Mids = 30% (15% each)
Final Exam = 55%
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Wireless communication
What is wireless communication:
Any form of communication that does not require a
transmitter and receiver to be in physical contact
Electromagnetic waves propagate through free
space
Radar, RF, Microwave, IR, Optical
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Types of Communication
Simplex
one-way communication
radio, TV, etc
Half-duplex:
two-way communication but not simultaneous
push-to-talk radios, etc
Full-duplex:
two-way communication
cellular phones
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Forms of Communication
Analogue & Digital
Which one is Better?
Digital?
Why?
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Good processing techniques are available
for digital signals, such as
Data compression (or source coding)
Error Correction (or channel coding)
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Types of Media/Environments used
for Communication
Wireless & Wired
Why Wireless is better than Wired ?
Reduced Cost (cheap infrastructure)
Cabling very critical
Developing nations utilize cellular telephony rather than
laying twisted-pair wires to each home
Flexibility-Time
Can easily set-up temporary LANs
Disaster situations
Only use resources when sending or receiving a
signal
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User Mobility
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Wireless vs. Wired Communication
Wired Wireless
Each cable is a different channel One media (cable) shared by all
Signal attenuation is low High signal attenuation
No interference High interference
noise; co-channel interference; adjacent
channel interference
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Wireless vs. Wired Communication
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Wireless vs. Wired Communication
Noisy, time-varying channel
Environmental conditions affect transmission
Shared medium
Other users create interference
Must develop ways to share the channel
Bandwidth is limited
spectrum allocated by state rules
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Classification of Wireless Systems
Mobile Wireless Systems
GSM, CDMA
Ad-hoc
Fixed Wireless Systems
WiMax(IEEE 802.16a)
MMDS, LMDS
Infrastructure Dependent Wireless Systems
Cellular
WLL, WiMAX, Satellite
Ad Hoc Wireless Systems
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Wireless Networks - Infrastructure
Satellite – Wide coverage and high mobility
Cellular networks – High mobility
Wireless LANs etc – Low/None mobility
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Wireless Networks - Ad Hoc
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Adhoc Network
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Cellular Networks
First Generation
Analog Systems with Voice Traffic
Analog Modulation, mostly FM
FDMA/FDD multiple access
Second Generation (2G)
Digital Systems
Digital Modulation
Voice Traffic
TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple access
2.5G
Digital Systems
Voice + Low-data rate
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Third Generation
Digital
Voice + High-data rate
Multimedia Transmission
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Evolution Path
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Gain
An increase in an RF signal's amplitude
Usually an active process; an external power source,
such as an RF amplifier, is used to amplify the signal or
a high-gain antenna is used to focus the beamwidth of a
signal to increase its signal amplitude
Increasing the RF signal's strength may have a positive
or a negative result
Typically, more power is better, but when a transmitter
is radiating power very close to the legal power output
limit, where added power would be a serious problem
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Gain
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Loss
Loss describes a decrease in signal strength
Reasons
Resistance of cables and connectors causes loss due
to the converting of the AC signal to heat
Impedance mismatches in the cables and connectors
can cause power to be reflected back toward the
source, which can cause signal degradation
Objects directly in the propagated wave's
transmission path can absorb, reflect, or destroy RF
signals
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Loss
Measurement and compensation for loss in RF
connection or circuit is important because radios have
a receive sensitivity threshold
A sensitivity threshold is defined as the point at which a
radio can clearly distinguish a signal from background noise
If losses occur between the transmitter and
receiver, the problem must be corrected either
by removing the objects causing loss or by
increasing the transmission power
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Loss
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Radio Propagation Mechanisms
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Multi-path Propagation
Received signal is made up of several paths which can be classified as:
1. Direct Path
2. Reflected Path
3. Scattered Path
4. Diffracted Path
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Line Of Sight (LOS) Non Line Of Sight (NLOS)
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Multipath Propagation
Reflection
Occurs when signal encounters a surface that is
large relative to the wavelength of the signal
Diffraction
Occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is
large compared to wavelength of radio wave
Scattering
Occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose
size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or
less
Other Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
Reflection: It occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
intrudes upon an object which has very large dimensions when
compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflection occurs
from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Diffraction: It occurs when the radio path between the transmitter
and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities
(edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are
present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise
to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even if the line of sight path
does not exist between the transmitter and the receiver.
Scattering: It occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to
the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is
large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or
by other irregularities in the channel.
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LOS & NLOS Scenarios
LOS (Line of Sight): Since, the received signal is directly received
at the receiver the effects such as reflection, diffraction and scattering
doesn’t affect the signal reception that much.
NLOS (Non Line of Sight): When the direct LOS between
transmitter and receiver is lost the effects such as reflection, diffraction
and scattering become very important as in the absence of direct path
they become the main contributors to the received signal at the receiver.
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Line Of Sight (LOS) Non Line Of Sight (NLOS)
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Multipath
Multipath is defined as the composition of a primary
signal plus duplicate or echoed wave fronts caused by
reflections of waves off objects between the
transmitter and receiver
The delay between the instant that the first main
signal arrives and the instant that the last reflected
signal arrives is known as delay spread
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Effects of Multipath
Multipath can cause several different
conditions, all of which can affect the
transmission of the RF signal differently
These conditions include:
Decreased Signal Amplitude (downfade)
Corruption
Nulling
Increased Signal Amplitude (upfade)
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Decreased Signal Amplitude
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Corruption
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Nulling
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Increased Signal Amplitude
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Antenna Diversity
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Characteristics of the Wireless Channels (Impairments)
Susceptible to a variety of transmission impediments/hindrance
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Path Loss or Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
These factors restricts the range, data rate, and reliability of the
wireless channel
Effects depends upon the environmental conditions and the mobility of
the transmission and receiver
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Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission
medium
Guided media
Attenuation is generally logarithmic and typically expresses as a
constant number of decibels per unit distance
Unguided media
Attenuation is a more complex function of distance makeup of
atmosphere
Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in
the receiver can interpret the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be
received without error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion
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Path Loss Or Free Space Loss
For any type of wireless communication the signal disperses
with distance
This form of attenuation is also expressed as Free space loss
Important for designing and deploying the wireless
communication networks
Dependent of
Radio frequency used
Nature of the Territory
Distance
Different estimation (model) for different environment
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Noise
For any data transmission event, the received signal will
consists of
Transmitted signal, modified by the various distortions imposed
by the transmission systems
Additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere
between transmission and reception
These unwanted signals are referred as noise
Thermal Noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
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Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and transmission
media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite communication
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Noise
Intermodulation noise – occurs if signals with different
frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is the
sum or difference of two original frequencies or multiple of those
frequencies
Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between signal paths, can
also occur when unwanted signals are picked up by
microwave antennas
Often dominates in ISM bands
Impulse noise – irregular pulses or noise spikes
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and flaws
in the communications system
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Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption – water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath propagation – obstacles reflect
signals so that multiple copies with varying
delays are received
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Multipath Propagation
Reflection
Occurs when signal encounters a surface that is
large relative to the wavelength of the signal
Diffraction
Occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is
large compared to wavelength of radio wave
Scattering
Occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose
size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or
less
Multipath Propagation
Effects of Multipath Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal
may arrive at different
phases
If phases add destructively,
the signal level relative to
noise declines, making
detection more difficult
Inter-symbol interference
(ISI)
One or more delayed
copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as
the primary pulse for a
subsequent bit
Fading
Fluctuation in signal strength when received at the receiver
Four types
Fast fading Or small-scale fading
Slow fading Or large-scale fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Fixed environment
Affected by changes in environmental conditions, such as rainfall or
electric noise
Mobile environment
Effect of fading is more complex - mobility
Effects
Add signals constructively or destructively at the receiver, causing a
variation in the power level of the received signal
Introduce bit error rate and packet error rate
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Fast Fading
Rapid fluctuations in the amplitude, phase, or multipath
delays of the received signal
Reasons
Due to the interference between multiple version (copies) of the
same transmitted signal arriving at the receiver at slightly
different times
Delayed Spread
Time between the reception of the first version of the signal and
the last echoed signal is called delayed spread
Reasons
Occurs because of the three mechanism, reflection, diffraction,
and scattering
Error control coding, interleaving, frequency hopping and
diversity is used to mitigate the effect of fading
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Fast Fading in Mobile terrestrial Channel
This can be attributed to the phasor addition of various multi-path
signals.100-200 times/sec, that’s why Fast Fading! 90o
180o 0o
200 o
300o
270o
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Fast Fading in Mobile terrestrial
Channel
Constructive interference takes place
when two or more rays arrive in-phase
(or almost in-phase) with each other
Destructive interference takes place
when two or more rays arrive anti-phase
(or almost out-of-phase) with each
other. This also means rays arriving 180o
apart from each other
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Rayleigh Fading
Non-line-of-sight case (k=0)
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Rician Fading
Line-of-sight case (k>1)
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K-Factor
K-Factor is the ratio of power of a
dominant (LOS) path to the power of the
random components (/scatter)
For cases where LOS component is week
(Rayleigh), the K-factor will be small.
However, if the line of sight dominates
(Rician), the K-factor will normally take
positive values between 5 and 10 dB.
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BER for Various Fading Conditions
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Slow Fading or Shadow Fading
Cause the received signal power to vary, though the distance
between the transmitter and receiver remains the same
Occurs when objects that partially absorb the transmission
lie between the transmitter and receiver
It is called Slow Fading because the variations are much
slower as compare to other fading phenomena
Also referred to as Shadow Fading since the objects that
cause the fade, (buildings or other structures), block the
direct transmission path from the transmitter to the receiver
A fade margin is added as an additional signal power to
overcome the problem
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Slow Fading (Shadowing)
Shadowing: It is the term given to the slow variations in received
signal power as the user moves through the environment, especially
behind large buildings or near by hills. These variations occur approx. 1
-2 times per second, that’s why Slow Fading!
Reflected
Scattered Path
Diffracted Path
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Shadowing: Behavior Prediction and
Mathematical Modeling
Behavior of the Constraint
P & 1/d4
Equipment Developed
Receiver and transmit Antennas
Amplifier (at the transmitter to increase the power)
Factors affecting this behavior
PT (Transmit power)
GT (Transmit Antenna Gain)
GR (Receiver Antenna Gain)
Effective Area of Antenna
Note: This effect can be mitigated by increasing the power using Amp.
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Slow Fading (Shadowing)
Non Line Of Sight (NLOS)
PR= PT GT GR (λ / 4 π) 2 x 1/d4
PT = Transmit power (Watts)
PR = Received Power (watts)
GT = Transmit Antenna Gain – relative to isotropic source (no unit)
GR = Receiver Antenna Gain – relative to isotropic source (no unit)
λ = Carrier’s Wavelength (λ = c / f) (meters)
d = Distance between transmitter and receiver (meters)
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Two More Types of Fading
Flat Fading
All frequency components of the received
signal fluctuate in the same proportions
simultaneously
Selective Fading
Affects unequally the different spectral
components of a radio signal
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Interference
Adjacent channel interference
Reason
Signals in nearby frequencies have components
outside their allocated ranges, these components
may interferes with on-going transmissions in the
adjacent frequencies
Avoidance
Introduce guard bands between the allocated
frequency ranges
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Interference
Co-channel interference/narrow band
interference
Reason
Due to other nearby systems using the same
transmission frequency
Avoidance
Can be minimized with the use of multiuser detection
mechanisms, directional antennas, and dynamic
channel allocation methods
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