data collection
MARK GALLANO
action research writeshop for master teachers
Leyte Park Resort Hotel • 24 APR 2019
surveys
interviews
observations
document review
surveys
survey research
~ characterized by collection of data by asking
individuals questions either in person, on paper, or by
phone or online.
~ is not suitable for the implementation of any
intervention or treatment because there is no
manipulation of any independent variable.
~ is useful in “Assessing the situation” as a preliminary
investigation prior to the conduct of Action Research.
surveys
interviews
observations
document review
interviews
survey research
~ is the process of gathering data where the researcher
directly asks for information needed in the study
through face-to-face or personal contact with the
respondent/s.
~ is used if the data required to answer the Action
Research question can be obtained only through verbal
conversation with the respondent/s.
types of interviews
According to number of interviewees
• Individual interview
• Focus group discussion
According to level of structure
• Structured
• Semi-structured
• unstructured
Structured Interview
The Action Researcher has a list of questions
already prepared.
Probe or follow-up questions are not posed.
Interviewees respond to the same series of
questions for the purpose of finding similarities
and/or differences among respondents.
Example:
How important do you believe is action research to teachers?
Very Important ________ Important ________
Of little importance _____ Not Important _____
Semi-structured Interview
The Action Researcher is ready with
questions or key points, which can be raised
in different order, depending on the responses
of the interviewees. Also referred to as the
General Interview Guide Approach
it is intended to ensure that information about
same general topics are acquired from every
respondent;
may include probe or follow-up questions
to obtain more detail about initial responses;
there is more freedom on the part of the
Interviewer, who can adapt the specific
questions according to the interviewee.
• Example:
Do you believe that action research is a
form of professional development activity?
(Yes or No) What makes you think so?
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
types of probe
The basic probe is repeating the initial
question, which reminds the interviewee what
you asked. This is useful if they have wandered
off the subject.
Explanatory probes are questions like ‘What
did you mean by that?’ and ‘What makes you say
that?’ and are useful for exploring meaning
further.
types of probe
Focused probes include questions like ‘What
sort of…?’
The silent probe is where the interviewer
simply remains silent and waits for the
interviewee to say more.
types of probe
Drawing out is useful when the interviewee
seems to have stopped mid-sentence or mid-
idea. Repeat the last few words that they said
with an upward inflexion, like a question, or
add ‘Tell me more about that’.
Giving ideas or suggestions would use
questions like ‘Have you thought about x?’ or
‘Have you tried…?’
Unstructured Interview
one question is asked and succeeding
questions depend on the initial response of
the interviewee;
sometimes referred to as the Informal
conversational interview;
no predetermined questions to be asked in
sequence;
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
the Interview is conducted in a very open
manner, and questions asked are adapted to
the interviewee's nature and priorities;
during the interview, the interviewer simply
"goes with the flow".
Example:
What is the most challenging part of
conducting action research? Why do you say
so? How do you address every challenge?
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
modes of interviews
Face-to-face Interviews
-require time in setting up an appointment
with the respondents, and in meeting with
them.
Distant Interviews.
- mediated by technology
Interview Questions
open-ended questions: “What”, “How” and
“Why”.
Example
In what way/s do student organizations help
individual students develop as a person?
closed-ended questions-Interviewees are
given some options to choose from to answer a
question.
Example
How important do you believe is homework for learning?
______ Very Important ______ Important
______ Not so Important ______ Not Important
• It is important that you are clear about the
Research Question that will be answered when
you complete the interviews.
• The Research Question will be your guide in
formulating each interview question.
Types of Topics in Questions
Background/Demographics – Information
about personal characteristics of respondent,
such as age, grade level, place of residence
Behaviors – What a person has done, is doing
or will do
Feelings – Sentiments or emotional states
(Note: Interviewees sometimes respond with
"I think ..." so be careful to clarify that you
are asking about feelings, not opinions.)
Knowledge – Facts about a topic
Opinions/Values – What a person thinks about
a topic
Sensory – What respondents have seen,
touched,
heard, tasted or smelled
Arrangement of Questions
Ask about facts first, before asking about
controversial matters such as feelings and
conclusions.
Distribute fact-based questions throughout
the interview so as to avoid the monotony of
asking series of fact-based questions that
may lead to respondents becoming less
interested in the interview
Pose questions about the present before
questions about the past or future. Participants
can easily talk about what is going on, which
can help them recall the past or think of the
future.
The last questions might be to allow
respondents to provide any other information
they prefer to add and their impressions of
the interview.
Wording of Questions
Wording should be open-ended.
Questions should be as neutral as much as
possible. Any evocative or judgmental
wording that might influence respondents’
answers should be avoided.
For example, avoid questions such as “Do
you not agree that it is easier for you to.…”
Questions should be asked one at a time.
Questions should be worded clearly. Use
words that are familiar to the
respondents or words used in their
culture.
Be careful when you ask "Why" questions.
-may cause respondents to feel defensive,
that they have to justify their response,
which may constrain their responses to
these and succeeding questions
Preparations for the Interview
If possible, before the actual interview,
provide the respondents with copies of the
interview questions.
Choose a place of interview with as little
distraction as possible.
Explain the purpose of the interview
Assure the interviewee of confidentiality and
anonymity. You may also wish to explain how
their responses will be analyzed.
Ask permission to quote their comments
anonymously if you have to. If you wish, you
may want to obtain a signed Informed Consent
from each interviewee.
Briefly discuss the format of the interview, if
it is a Structured, Semi-structured or
Unstructured.
Explain the type of interview you are
conducting and its nature.
Specify also if you will allow them to ask
questions they might have, or you prefer to
finish your interview questions first and wait until
the end of the interview to answer their
questions.
Avoid the situation where the respondent
becomes the interviewer and you become the
interviewee. Quickly return to your purpose for
the interview when this happens.
Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
Tell them how to get in touch with you later if
they want to. Give them your cellphone number
and landline number in school.
Ask them if they have any questions before you
get started with the interview.
Don't rely on your memory to recall their
answers. Ask for permission to record the
interview in writing and/or in a tape or video
recoding. You may also bring along someone
to take notes for you, but be sure to inform
the respondent about this.
Conducting the Interview
Write notes, even if you are already
recoding the interview.
If you are using a tape recorder,
occasionally check if it is working.
Ask one question at a time. Pause after
asking the question.
Keep a neutral stance as much as
possible. Avoid showing strong emotional
reactions to the responses. One suggestion
is to act as if "you've heard it all before."
Reinforce or support responses with
occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, and
similar assurances.
Be “cool” when you take notes. Try not to be
so eager in jotting down responses, as it might
indicate surprise or delight on your part, and
may affect responses to future questions.
Take control of the interview. Keep respondents
focused on the topic, and bring them back to it if
they stray to another topic. Repeat a question if it
takes the interview a long time to answer; you
may either rephrase it if you still do not get a
response. Suggest that you move on to another
topic and return to the question later on.
Manage the time by ensuring that the interview
ends at exactly the time you said it will.
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
At the end of the interview, summarize the
responses given and ask the interviewee if
he/she wished to clarify, add or delete any
response given. Give the respondent the
freedom to “edit” his/her responses. Respect
their decisions or requests to delete any
response that they do not wish to be used as
data.
Secure the contact number of the interviewee
should you need to clarify some responses.
Express your gratitude and bid goodbye as
promptly as you can.
If possible, give a little token of appreciation for
the time spent with you.
Students are often delighted with light snacks after
the interview.
Immediately After the Interview
If you used a tape recorder, verify if it worked
throughout the interview.
Document the source of the information by
writing the name (or initials) of the interviewee,
and the time, date and place of the interview.
Review your notes, and rewrite any scribblings
that are not legible. Make clarificatory notes on
your written notes. Fill in any notes that are
missing or notes that do not make sense.
Ensure that pages of your notes are numbered.
At the end of your interview notes, write any
observations you have made during the
interview.
For example, indicate if the respondent was
particularly nervous during the interview, if there
were any surprises during the interview, if there
were any unfortunate events such as
malfunction of the recording device.
Research Ethics and Tips in
Conducting an Interview
Interviews should be conducted only when
the Researcher has obtained permission
from parents, administrators and others
concerned. Interview respondents
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
Interview respondents have to be
informed about the purpose of the
interview and the Action Research for
which the interview will be conducted.
The researcher is responsible for the
confidentiality of the data.
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
Researchers must also be open to the
possibility that respondents may refuse to be
interviewed. When this happens, the researcher
should find another respondent as a substitute.
January 15, 2019 Training on Action Research .
surveys
interviews
observations
document review
observations
survey research
~ systematic data collection approach in which
researchers use all of their senses to examine people in
natural settings or naturally occurring situations; use of
sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell
~ relatively inexpensive to conduct, and the researcher
needs only a few resources. However, they can be time
consuming and physically demanding
~ means of collecting data by watching people or events
~ involves prolonged engagement in a setting or social
situation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0L156voW_YQ
Overt Observation
the participants know that they are being
observed,
the identity and purpose of the researcher are
revealed, and
permission to observe them is sought.
Covert Observations,
participants are neither informed about, nor aware
of, the observation,
the study is conducted “under cover”
the identity and purpose of the researcher are also
concealed or undisclosed
the researcher sometimes acts as if he/she were a
genuine member of the group being observed
Types of Observations
• Naturalistic Observation – Conducted
where the participants are to observe
spontaneous behaviors or interactions
between/among people
Also called “Unstructured” Observation, these
observations involve studying spontaneous
behavior of participants in their natural
surroundings
The researcher records details pertinent to the
objectives of the observation or the Research
Question.
The researcher conducts observations of
students where they are naturally found:
classrooms, playground, cafeteria, library,
laboratory and similar places.
Strengths are: “ecological” validity of data
because behaviour flows naturally, and close
study of a classroom or school situation
through observation can bring new ideas about
possible interventions.
Limitations are: inability to manipulate
variables to make causal inferences; lack of
representativeness of sample which hinders
generalization or application of conclusions to
other groups; observations less reliable than
those conducted in controlled or contrived set-
ups; and the necessity of training for observer
to appreciate distinctive aspects of situation to
be studied.
Participant Observation
• Researcher is part or becomes part of the
group to be observed by immersion
• Strength: greater understanding of the lives of the
group being studied is obtained.
Limitations: difficulty in making notes while
observing and greater reliance on memory;
decreased objectivity and greater bias; and
“selective” observation such that some “negative”
observations may be omitted thus reducing validity
of data.
Controlled Observation
• These are usually conducted in a laboratory
setting
• The researcher determines the place and time
of the observations, the participants who will be
observed, and under what circumstances they
will be observed using a standardized
procedure.
• Participants can be randomly “assigned” or
exposed to situations of interest.
• Observations are usually overt.
• The researcher is non-participant, keeping a
distance and avoiding direct contact with
participants (e.g. observing behind a two-way
mirror).
• Predetermined structured observation
instrument, with codes for behaviors to be
observed is used to standardize observation;
letters or numbers designated to describe a
characteristic.
• Data collected can be easily tallied and
analyzed using statistics.
• Checklists and Rating Scales may also be
employed to indicate presence or intensity of
behaviors.
• Strengths: easy replication by other
researchers; possibility of determining inter-
observer (between observers) or intra-observer
(within an observer) reliability due to
standardized tools; simple and speedy coding
and analysis of data; capability for large
sample size representative of the population
due to relatively short observation time;
possibility of making generalization from
sample to population
• Limitation is “Hawthorne effect” or demand
characteristics;
• Participants behave differently when they know
they are being observed; Data obtained may
lack validity.
Recording of Data
Aside from sampling with regard to participants, the
observer has to also decide on sampling with
regard to which behavior will be recorded. There
are three ways of deciding which specific
behavioral data will be collected.
Event Sampling
pre-selecting the types of behavior (events)
the Researcher is interested in. He/she then
records all occurrences of these behaviors or
events.
All other types of behavior are disregarded.
Example: One type of behavior that may be
selected for observation is “disruptive behavior”
in the classroom. The observer focuses only on
all behaviors considered “disruptive”.
Time Sampling
the Researcher decides in advance the
specific period of time during
which observation will be carried out.
For example, it may be planned to observe
behavior during the first 10 minutes of each hour
in the morning. Thus, all behavior exhibited
during this period, and this period only, will be
recorded.
Instantaneous (Target Time) Sampling
Moments during which observation will take
place are selected ahead of time. Only the
behaviors that occur during these moments are
recorded. Behaviors that appear before or after
these moments are not attended. Everything
happening in other times is overlooked.
Example of these moments is when students are
engaged in group work. The observer
concentrates on observing students during the
time that they get together in small groups to do
class work.
Data Collection Methods:
Observations Tools
Observations need to be recorded. You might use:
• Field Notes –The observer writes verbal
descriptions of what has been seen, heard and
experienced in a notebook, including meaningful
statements that have been said. Full transcriptions
of these notes must be made before embarking on
data analysis.
• Audio and Video Recordings – Observations are
captured electronically using a tape recorder or a
video camera.
• Rating Scales – Intensity, prevalence or
degree of behavior as observed are indicated
along a scale by the observer.
• Checklists – Lists of important behaviors or
actions to be observed, are used. Only those
that are manifested are marked as present
(usually with a check mark under a “Yes”,
“Present” or “Observed” column).
• Anecdotal Records – The observer puts in
writing detailed accounts of important events
and behaviors, without any interpretations.
Guidelines for Conducting
Observations
• Be unnoticeable. Except in Controlled Observations,
ensure that your participants do not notice you as an
observer.
• Be objective & specific.
When jotting down notes to describe behavior, use
terms or words that are clear, precise, and formal.
Remember to focus on the behavior that you need to
observe, and not on your interpretation of it.
• Be systematic and thorough.
observation notes or recordings should be
exact.
should be logically sequenced and complete,
and
should include only what you saw and heard.
Remember to separate your observations from
your interpretations.
Ethics in Using Observations as Data Collection
Method for Action Research
should conform to the highest ethical standards.
Permission from parents, administrators and
others concerned should be sought prior to
conducting observations.
Protection of the rights of participants should be
central in the mind of the observer. Full names of
student participants who are observed should be
replaced with code names or pseudonyms.
Ethics in Using Observations as Data Collection
Method for Action Research
Confidentiality of data obtained from observations should
also be maintained.
Field notes, and all audio and video recordings, as well
as completed rating scales and checklists should be kept
in a secure place. At no time should these be shared with
other individuals except with fellow researchers or
teachers in the research team for the project.
surveys
interviews
observations
document review
document
survey research review
Documents when teacher is the subject of research:
• Lesson plans
• Classroom observation tools
• Minutes of the meetings
• Print Materials, (Journals, School paper,
Photographs, Letters, Diaries, Memos)
• Non-print Materials (Objects, Teaching aids, Audio-
video Recordings)
document
survey research review
Documents when a student is the subject of research:
• written work
• term papers
• portfolios
• reports
• diaries
• student report card
Primary and Secondary
Documentary (or Material)
Sources
• Primary Documentary (or Material) Sources
provide Action Research with direct or firsthand
evidence about students or events in which
students are involved.
original student products which may
constitute the data, or from which data for
Action Research may be obtained when all
other data collection methods are not
applicable.
written or non-written evidences, such as
sound recording, pictures or photographs
and artifacts.
Primary Documentary or
Material Sources
Diaries and Letters and Correspondence;
Internet communications;
Photographs and drawings; Works of art and
literature;
Books and other written materials published at the
specific time encompassed by the study;
Public opinion polls; Speeches;
Official personal documents such as birth
certificates and report cards;
Secondary Documentary Sources
are documents that explain, examine, clarify,
criticize, scrutinize, assess, review, and sort out
Primary Documentary Sources
they do not have the novelty and immediacy of
the original documents
can be found in written and audio-visual
formats such as pictures and video clips.
Examples of Secondary Documentary
Sources
Biographies,
Reference books,
Articles from magazines, journals, and
newspapers written and published after the
event;
Literature reviews and review articles; and
External and Internal Criticism
• External Criticism the process of examining the
authenticity of documents and materials used as
data and/or data sources in Action Research.
The Action Researcher must determine the
genuineness or validity of the document or
material.
Answers to questions about the document or
material such as “Is it what it appears or claims to
be?” and “Is it acceptable as data or source of data
for the research?” have to be carefully considered.
It is the duty of the researcher to first attest to the
authenticity of the document or material before it is
used as data or source of data for the study.
External Criticism can be performed by examining external
features about the document or material, and/or its author as
follows:
Language and writing style – Are these typical of
the author, and consistent with other written works
by the author?
Physical appearance such as quality of paper and
format, or raw material in the case of an object –
Does the document or material look original in
terms of the paper and format used
Authorship – Is/are the author/s of the document
or material known and/or mentioned or indicated
in the document or material?
Does the author or creator posses the characteristics
or qualifications to write the document or produce
the material?
Is the author or creator knowledgeable about the
content of the document, or the message or purpose
of the material?
• Internal Criticism
pertains to the accuracy of the contents of a
document.
The truthfulness of what the document says have to be
ascertained by the Action Researcher.
Questions like “Is the document telling the truth?” and
“Is the content of the document consistent with known
facts about the writer and/or the topic?” are addressed
through Internal Criticism. This is the reason why
Internal Criticism has to be undertaken for a document
or material even if its authenticity has been proven. For
Material Sources such as art work of students, content
is not a relevant consideration for authentication.
Physical examination of the object may be sufficient
• Internal Criticism of documents may be
accomplished by scrutinizing the words and
statements in terms of the following:
Meanings – The meanings of words and
statements must be consistent with known facts.
Credibility – The words and statements must be
trustworthy and reliable.
Thank you!
MARK GALLANO
Policy Planning and Research Division
Department of Education Regional Office VIII
[email protected] | (053) 323-5869
