Introduction to

Statistical Method
Observation Study and Sampling Design for
Survey
 What is Observational Study?

● They are called observational studies because the investigator observes

individuals without manipulation or intervention.
○ One common observational study is about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects,
where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the
control of the investigator.
Types of Observational Study
● Sample Survey
○ is a study that provides information about a population at a
particular point in time (current information).
● Prospective Study
○ (sometimes called a prospective cohort study) is a type of cohort study, or
group study, where participants are enrolled into the study
● Retrospective Study
○ is a study that observes a population in the present using a sample survey and also collects
information about the subjects in the sample regarding the occurrence of specific outcomes that
have already taken place.
Retrospective and Prospective
Cohort studies - A type of prospective study in which two groups of study subjects with
unknown outcomes are compared based on supposed casual factor.

Case-control studies - A type of retrospective study in which two groups with different
known outcomes are compared based on supposed casual factor.

Cross-sectional studies - A type of observational study that analyses data from a

population at one point in time - thus it is, “cross-sectional” data
Sampling Designs for
Survey
 Components for an Effective Sample
1) Target Population: is the entire population or group that a researcher is interested in
researching and analysing, a sampling frame is then drawn from this target population.

2) Sample: A subset of the target population.

3) Sampled Population: is the population about which we actually draw the sample.
4) Observation unit: The object upon which data are collected.
5) Sampling Unit: The object that is actually sampled.
6) Sampling Frame: The list of sampling units.
Sampling
Design
1.) Simple Random Sampling: Consists of selecting a group of n units in such a
way that each sample of size n has the same chance of being selected.

2.) Stratified Random Sample: It is a method of sampling that involves the

division of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata. In stratified
random sampling or stratification, the strata are formed based on members' shared
attributes or characteristics such as income or educational attainment.
3.) Cluster Sampling: It is a sampling method that is used when mutually homogeneous yet internally
heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population.

4.) Systematic Sampling: Is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members from a
larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed periodic interval, it
is calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample size.

5.) Convenience Sample: Those who are accessible or near are only asked for a survey
6.) Voluntary Response: The researcher puts out request for members of a population to join the
sample and decide whether or not to be in the sample.
Problem associated
with survey
 SURVEY NON RESPONSE
● Non response happens when there is a significant difference between those who
responded to your survey and those who did not. This may happen for a variety of
reasons, including:
○ Some people refused to participate. This could be because you are asking for
embarrassing information, or information about illegal activities.
 REMEDIES FOR SPECIFIC
PROBLEMS
● Offering an inducement for participating in the survey

● Sending reminders or making follow-up telephone calls to the individuals who did not
respond to the first contact

● Using statistical techniques to adjust the survey findings to account for the sample
profile differing from the population profile
 Measurement problems
are the result of the respondents not providing the information that
the survey seeks.

These problems often are due to the specific wording of questions in

a survey, the manner in which the respondent answers the survey
questions, and the fashion in which an interviewer phrases questions
during the interview.
 Remedies for Specific Problems
● Inability to recall answers to questions
● Leading Questions
● Unclear Wording of Questions
Data Collection
Techniques
 Data Collection Techniques
● Observation:
○ Seeing is believing, they say. Making direct observations of simplistic phenomena can be a
very quick and effective way of collecting data with minimal intrusion. Establishing the right
mechanism for making the observation is all you need.
● Questionnaires:
○ Questionnaires, as we consider them here, are stand-alone instruments of data collection that
will be administered to the sample subjects either through mail, phone or online. They have
long been one of the most popular data collection techniques.
 Data Collection Techniques
● Interviews:
○ Conducting interviews can help you overcome most of the shortfalls of the previous two data
collection techniques that we have discussed here by allowing you to build a deeper
understanding of the thinking behind the respondents’ answers.
● Focus Group Discussion:
○ Focus group discussions take the interactive benefits of an interview to the next level by
bringing a carefully chosen group together for a moderated discussion on the subject of the
survey.
Stages of a Survey
● Personal Interview
● Telephone Interview
● Self administered Questionnaire
● Direct Observation
That’s all!
Thank you for listening.
Good afternoon once again!
 QUIZ
1. A TV show host asks his viewers to visit his website and respond to an online poll.
2. Principle takes an alphabetized list of student names and picks a random starting point, Every 20 th
student is selected to take a survey.
3. An airline company wants to survey it’s customers one day, so they randomly select 5 flights that day
and survey every passenger on those flight.
4. A student council surveys 100 students by getting random samples of 25 freshmen, 25 sophomores,
25 juniors, 25 seniors.
5. A researcher polls people as they walk by on the street.
QUIZ