Chapter 19

Network Layer:
Logical Addressing

19.1
 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.

 The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.
 n=32bits

19.2
Figure 19.1 Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

state, city, street, house number

19.3
Hexadecimal Notation

0111 0101 1001 0101 0001 1101 1110 1010

75 95 1D EA

0x75951DEA
 Example 19.1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for
separation.

19.5
 Example 19.2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent (see Appendix B).

19.6
 Example 19.3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
19.7
 Hierarchy in Addressing
 Hierarchical addressing system
 E.g. Telephone Network
 Two Parts : Prefix and Suffix
 Classful addressing and Classless
addressing

19.8
 Classful Addressing

In classful addressing, the address

space is divided into five classes:
A, B, C, D, and E.

19.9
Netid and hostid
 Figure 19.2 Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

19.11
19.12
 Example 19.4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
19.13
 Table 19.1 Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing

19.14
Figure 4-7

Blocks in class A
Millions of class A addresses

are wasted.
Blocks in class B
Many class B addresses

are wasted.
Figure 4-9

Blocks in class C
 The number of addresses in

a class C block

is smaller than

the needs of most organizations.

Class D addresses

are used for multicasting;

there is only

one block in this class.

Class E addresses are reserved

for special purposes;

most of the block is wasted.

 Note

In classful addressing, a large part of

the available addresses were wasted.

19.21
Masking
• A mask is a 32-bit binary number.
• The mask is ANDeD with IP address to get
• The bloc address (Network address)
• Mask And IP address = Block Address
19.23
Table 19.2 Default masks for classful addressing
 Note

Classful addressing, which is almost

obsolete, is replaced with classless
addressing.

19.25
 Example 19.5

Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary

and dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business
that needs 16 addresses.

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.

The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses
is a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible
by 16. The first address, when converted to a decimal
number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16
results in 215,024,210.

19.26
 Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

19.27
Classless Addressing
 Variable length of block of addresses, prefix
length
 Block of 1 address, 10 address,100 address so
on
 20 ,21 etc
 Division of whole address space into non-overlapping
blocks
Variable-length blocks
 Note

In IPv4 addressing, a block of

addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.

19.29
19.30
 Extraction of Information
1. The number of addresses in the block is found
as N = 232−n.
2. To find the first address, we keep the n
leftmost bits and set the (32 − n) rightmost bits
all to 0s.
3. To find the last address, we keep the n
leftmost bits and set the (32 − n) rightmost
bits all to 1s.

19.31
 Classless Addressing
 167.199.170.82/27.
 The number of addresses in the network is
232 − n = 25 = 32 addresses.

19.32
19.33
 Note

The first address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.

19.34
 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.
19.35
 Note

The last address in the block can be

found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

19.36
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.

19.37
 Note

The number of addresses in the block

can be found by using the formula
232−n.

19.38
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.39
 Example 19.9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can
be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).
P=28 Bits ,S=4bits
Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
19.40
 Example 19.9 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.

19.41
 Example 19.9 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.

19.42
 Example 19.9 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.

19.43
  1)14.12.72.8/24
 2)200.107.16.17/18
 3)70.110.19.17/16
 No of addresses =
 11111111111111111100000000000000-Mask
 Complement of Mask
 00000000000000000011111111111111
 No of addresses
=00000000000000000011111111111111
+1=16384

19.44
 3)70.110.19.17/16 p=16,s=16
Binary=01000110 01101110 00010011 00010001
FA in Block
01000110 01101110 00010011 00010001
AND
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000M
R= 01000110 01101110 00000000 00000000
F A in block=70.110.0.0

19.45
 Binary=01000110 01101110 00010011 00010001
LA in Block
01000110 01101110 00010011 00010001
OR
00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 CM
R= 01000110 01101110 11111111 11111111
LA=70.110.255.255
Total no of addresses=Com of mask (dec)
+1=65535+1=65536

19.46
 Figure 19.4 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28

19.47
 Note

The first address in a block is

normally not assigned to any device;
it is used as the network address that
represents the organization
to the rest of the world.

19.48
 Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.49
 Figure 19.6 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

 2 bit
 00 ,01,10,11
 00-BITM,10-BIIB,11=BIHMRD
 01-BIMM

19.50
 Note

Each address in the block can be

considered as a two-level
hierarchical structure:
the leftmost n bits (prefix) define
the network;
the rightmost 32 − n bits define
the host.

19.51
 Figure 19.7 Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network

19.52
 Figure 19.8 Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

19.53
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.
19.54
  P=n bits S=32-n bits
 Total no of addresses=256=232-n

 S=8
 P=24 bits
 Start =00000000 last =11111111
 190.100.1.0 to 190.100.1.255
 190.100.2.0 to 190.100.2.255
 190.100.3.0

19.55
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution
Figure 19.9 shows the situation.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses
are

19.56
  P=25 bits S=7bits
 Group2

 C1 : 190.100.64.0 to

 00000000 ,

00000001,00000010,00000011……………………
………………………01111111
 Last address for C1: 190.100.64.127

 C2 : 190.100.64.128 to 190.100.64.255

256/2=128
19.57
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses
are

19.58
 Example 19.10 (continued)
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
19.59
  An organization is granted a block of addresses with the
beginning address 14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs to
have 3 subblocks of addresses to use in its three subnets: one
subblock of 10 addresses, one subblock of 60 addresses, and
one subblock of 120 addresses. Design the subblocks
 P=24 S=8
 There are 2 raise 32-24 256 addresses in this block.
 The first address is 14.24.74.0/24; the last address is
14.24.74.255/24.
 To satisfy the third requirement, we assign addresses to
subblocks, starting with the largest and ending with the
smallest one.

19.60
  The number of addresses in the largest subblock,
which requires 120 addresses, is not a power of 2.
We allocate 128 addresses.
 S=7
 The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as
n1 32 -log2128 25.
 The first address in this block is 14.24.74.0/25;
 the last address is 14.24.74.127/25.

19.61
  The number of addresses in the second largest
subblock, which requires 60 addresses, is not a
power of 2 either.
 We allocate 64 addresses.
 The subnet mask for this subnet can be found
 as n2 32 log264 26.
 The first address in this block is 14.24.74.128/26;
 the last address is 14.24.74.191/26.

19.62
  The number of addresses in the smallest subblock,
which requires 10 addresses, is not a power of 2
either.
 We allocate 16 addresses.
 The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as
 n3 32 log216 28.
 The first address in this block is 14.24.74.192/28;
 the last address is 14.24.74.207/28.

19.63
 Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.64